Historical Personages Deified

November 14, 2013, 1:38 am

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Arhats

The Arhats are historical personages. They were disciples of Buddha to whom Buddha Sakyamuni. entrusted the work of promulgating and protecting the sacred Doctrine. According to Indian tradition the Arhats are sixteen in number but in Tibet two more companions are added to this group and are popularly known as the 'Eighteen Arhats'. They are subject to no more rebirths and are generally depicted with monastic garments and bare-headed with various attributes.

Arhat Pindola Bharadvaja is seated on leaves spread over a rock. His right hand holds the manuscript and his left hand is with an alms-bowl which according to Tibetan tradition has the power of fulfilling the wishes. Around him there are blossoming trees, high-peaked mountains, temples, stupas, etc. At the top Buddha is represented in bhusparsa and vyakhyanamudra at two corners. Below there are figures of lions with yellow manes and tails and a devotee in Chinese dress, carrying water-jug and holding a fan. The thanka betrays Kham art traditions with strong Chinese influence.

Arhat Bharadvaja wearing monk's dress is seated on throne in dhyana-mudra. Just before his throne a monk is seated holding a water-pot along with jewels in a bowl and other auspicious jewels scattered on the ground.

His life-scenes are depicted in the thanka. Around him is unfolded a few remarkable episodes of his life such as celebration of his birth, his charity to beggars etc. The lower part of the thanka depicts the meeting of Bh5radvaja with Ananda, the disciple of Buddha who introduced him to Buddha in a grove, his ordination and his -meditation along with a devotee. The most important feature of this thanka is the lively landscape, the blue sky, the snow-covered highly peaked mountain with horse-riders and animals, the green vegetation; the rivers, the grove, the hut, the rocks and falls which show a combination of Indian, Chinese and Tibetan artistic idioms.

The thanka probably hails from Eastern Tibet.

Teachers of Different Schools and The Dalai Lama

Tsong-kha-pa, born in 1357 A.D. was a follower of Atisa and a great re-former of Tibet.. He was the founder of the Ge-lug-pa or Yellow cap sect and is regarded as an incarnation of Manjusri. He is represented seated on lotus, holding stems of lotuses with flaming sword and book on either side. He wears yellow pointed cap with long ear lappets and his left hand is in vitarkamudra. This thanka represents the pictorial biography of Tsong-kha-pa. Around the central figure his life-scenes are depicted. Different episodes of the life of Tsong-kha-pa are' illustrated sometimes in a house,. sometimes in a meadow, sometimes in a grove and sometimes in a cave. In one side he is represented studying, teaching, consecrating stupa, giving lessons to disciples, making stupas etc. At the bottom Tsong-kha-pa is represented receiving lessons from his guru while at the side are depicted vision of Manjusri, his meeting with Guru Laki Dorje and vision of Tsong-kha-pa representing teaching of Buddha to his disciples.

This thanka is probably painted in Central Tibet.

A teacher (guru) of the Ka-dam-pa school, Jetsun Yeshey Gyaltshan is portrayed on the throne holding alms-bowl in the left hand and displaying vitarkamudra in the right hand. A khakkara or alarm-staff is placed on his right side. Before the throne a low table is placed bearing a number of ritual objects like holy water-vessel, mirror, bell, vajra, skull-cup, etc. At the top, in the centre, crowned Buddha is seated in bhusparsa mudra flanked by Sariputta and Maudgalayana, his two disciples. Besides there are also figures of Atisa and Drome who invited Atisa in Tibet. The other deities at the top row are Avalokitesvara, 8yama Tara and Tsong-kha-pa, the great reformer and founder of the Ge-lug-pa sect. Just above his head is a small figure of Amitayus holding ambrosia vase. Around him there are the figures of Indian monks, Sravaka (K. Nyentho Gepo), Brahmin Srimapati (Bramsi gewari-Teshan), Dharmakirti (Palden choddrag), the great saint and mahasiddha Mila Repa, two other mahasiddhas and the gurus of the Ka-dam-pa School. On his right and left sides there are the figures of White Naha (Gan kar, Kong-po-karpo) holding khadga and pasa trampling an elephant and Yama with Yami riding a buffalo.

Lobzang Gyatsho, the fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682) is here seated on throne holding lotus and book in the right and left hands respectively. The fifth Dalai Lama was the author of many books and his biography throws an important light on the religious and secular life of Tibet: In the upper part of the thanka, at the right and left corners there are the representations of two deities, Padmapani Avalokitesvara (Chen-ri-zig) exhibiting lotus and the varadamudra in two hands and Avalokitesvara in vitarkamudra. The lower part of the thanka portrays the two kings of Tibet, Nva-tri-Tsempo, the first king of Tibet and Song-tsen-Gampo, the renowned king who introduced Buddhism in Tibet. The central figure and other accessory figures bear Tibetan inscription at the bottom which serve as labels for their identification. In Tibet, the Dalai Lama is the supreme head in all spiritual and temporal matters. He is also regarded as the incarnation of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.

Miscellaneous

This thanka represents the refuge tree of the Ge-lug-pa school, representing the paths of Buddhism. and its propagation in Tibet. The central figure is Buddha Sakyamuni in blumisparsamudra and around him in all directions are grouped the Bodhisattvas, saints, propagators and protective deities of the Mahayana Buddhism. Buddha with an image of Adi Buddha Vajradhara in yab-yum at heart is flanked by Bodhisattva Maitreya and Manjusri on either side. On top of the thanka, in the middle, is portrayed the figure of Vajradhara and his Sakti in yab-yum, mahasiddhas, Bodhisattva Manjusri, Atisa, Tsong-kha-pa and the lineage of the Ge-lug-pa school. To the right and left of Buddha are grouped the Indian and Tibetan saints of the Vajrayana Buddhism.

Below the throne there are in successive rows, the teachers of the Ge-lug-pa school, Yi-dams or tutelary deities, confession Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Taras, deified Lamas with bowl and khakkara, arhats, dakinis and Dharmapalas. The Lokapalas or four guardian kings of the four directions, east, south, west and north, namely, Dhritarastra (east), Virudhaka (south), Virupaksa (west) and Vaisravana (north) are portrayed at the foot of the throne. In front of the throne there is a symbol of dharmacakra and Brahma and Vishnu, the two deities, are represented offering wheel and conch-shell. Besides, three of the five great kings, protectors of monasteries and astrologers are also shown at the bottom of the thanka.

The thanka probably hails from Central Tibet.

This is a fortune-telling thanka and as a sort of game, 'the game of Rebirth', it is played with dice. Unlike other thankas this thanka is interesting for its subject-matter, which neither depicts a deity nor a monk but a sort of religious game a popular game of the Tibetan people. Though the subject is different the ultimate goal of the game as depicted in this painting, like other thankas is the same, i.e. nirvana or final liberation. Salam Nam Shag actually describes the path (marga) and the successive stages (bhumi) of spiritual progress for attaining nirvana. The game was invented by sakyapandita, the great Sanskrit scholar and guru of the Sakya sect in the early 13th century A.D. The thanka shows seven horizontal and seven vertical rows representing seven squares in each row. These squares which symbolically represent the 'board' of the game and cosmic geography illustrate the paths to enlightenment and final liberation.

At the top are shown the figures of Amitayus in Sukhavati heaven, Vajradhara in yab-yum in vajrahumkaramudra and Vajrayogini. In this thanka, devaloka, daityaloka, manusyaloka, nagaloka, pasuloka and naraka have been illustrated with representations of deities, arhats, sravakas, asuras, nagas, beasts and the sufferings in hell. The game is started from the human realm and with the cast of a dice one proceeds upward or down-ward either to devaloka or to the lower states of rebirth or naraka. The winner in the game of rebirth reaches the realm of Buddhahood and nirvana.

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About of Hindu Mythology

November 18, 2013, 4:38 am

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Vamana

Vishnu's fifth incarnation took place in the second age, the Tretayuga. During this time the Daitya Bali, grandson of Prahlada, became king. Bali did all in his power to propitiate the gods by honouring them. He ruled well and was loved by his people, but as far as the gods were concerned his one defect was his great ambition. Having extended his kingdom as far as he could on earth, Bali could direct this ambition only in one direction towards the kingdom of the gods. The celestials consulted together and Indra was advised by the sage Brihaspati that the power Bali had gained by his sacrifices could not be resisted lndra would inevitably lose his kingdom to Bali. Brihaspati's prediction was accurate, and the gods were turned out.

The gods again consulted together and it was decided that Vishnu should become incarnate as the son of Aditi and Kasyapa, one of the seven rishis. This child grew up as the dwarf Vamana. Relying on Bali's reputation for generosity, Vamana approached the king and asked for the gift of three paces of land. The gift was no sooner granted than Vamana began to grow to enormous size. He then took two paces, which covered all the earth and the heavens and thus won back for the gods the whole of Bali's kingdom. But Bali's merits, acquired through sacrifice and austerities, had to be recognised; accordingly Vamana relinquished his right to a third pace and Bali was granted dominion over the remaining area of the universe, the nether regions, called Patala. Bali was also permitted to visit his lost kingdom once a year, and this visit is regularly celebrated in Malabar by his still devoted subjects.

Parasurama

The sixth incarnation, like the fifth, took place in the second age, the Tretayuga, at a time when the Kshatriya caste was exercising a tyranny over all others, including the Brahmins. In order to restore the power of the priestly caste, Vishnu came into the world as Parasurama, the youngest son of a strict Brahmin hermit, Jamadagni. One day Jamadagni's wife happened to see a young couple frolicking in a pool and was filled with impure thoughts. When she returned home Jamadagni divined her thoughts and was incensed, deciding that she did not deserve to live. As each of his sons returned from the forest Jamadagni bade him strike off his mother's head, but they refused and were cursed by their father to idiocy. Finally Parasurama came back from the forest, and he alone of the sons did as his father instructed and struck off his mother's head with the axe, Parasu, which was given to him by Shiva and for which he was named. Jamadagni was pleased by his son's obedience, and offered to grant him a boon. Parasurama immediately asked that his mother should be restored to life and that he himself should become invincible in single combat and enjoy long life. Both boons were granted, and life continued as before at the hermitage, with Parasurama's mother restored to purity.

One day, however, a powerful Kshatriya king called Kartavirya who had a thousand arms, was hunting in the forest and called at the hermitage, where he was offered hospitality by Jamadagni's wife, who was alone at the time. While a guest of the house, Kartavirya caught sight of Jamadagni's wonderful cow kamadhenu, which could grant all desires. Kartavirya decided that such a miraculous animal should be the possession of a king rather than of a hermit, so he departed, driving the cow before him, despite the helpless protests of his hostess. When Parasurama arrived home shortly thereafter and heard what had happened, he set forth immediately, overtook Kartavirya, killed him in single combat and returned with the cow.

When Kartavirya's sons heard of his death they came marching with all their troops on the hermitage. There they found the aged Jamadagni alone and killed him. When Parasurama returned to find his father dead, he vowed vengeance on the whole Kshatriya caste. His vow was accomplished in the course of twenty-one campaigns against them, in which all their men folk were exterminated, their blood filling five large lakes. Having killed all the rulers, Parasurama gave the earth into the care of the Brahmin sage Kasyapa, father of Vishnu's former avatar Vamana, father of the Adityas and of the world. Parasurama himself retired to the mountains, his main purpose achieved.

Though he was an avatar of Vishnu, he was indebted to Shiva, who had among other things given him the axe Parasu. While he was still living, another avatar of Vishnu appeared on earth and Parasurama became jealous of him. The seventh was Ramachandra, generally called Rama. Both avatars figure in the two epics, the Ramayana which celebrates Ramachandra, and the Mahabharata. In the course of the Ramayana, Parasurama is annoyed with Ramachandra for having broken the bow of Shiva, and challenges him to a trial of strength. In this Parasu-rama is defeated and consequently excluded from a seat in the celestial world. The rivalry appears also in the Mahabharata, where Parasurama, armed with Shiva's bow, is knocked senseless by Ramachandra, armed with Vishnu's. It is Parasurama who instructs Arjuna in military skills during Arjuna's twelve-year period of exile, imposed for an involuntary breach of marital propriety. Parasu-rama fights with Bhishma, the son of the goddess Ganga, whose allegiance is to Arjuna's enemies, the Kauravas; but neither of them can defeat the other, for both are protected by magic boons.

Ramachandra (Rama)

Vishnu's seventh incarnation, accomplished even while the sixth was still on earth, had as its purpose to quell the most dangerous and powerful demon king who had ever appeared. This was Ravana, ten-headed rakshasa king of Lanka (Ceylon), whose strength was overcome only after the epic struggles related in the Ramayana.

Like Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakasipu, Ravana had practised austerities in order to propitiate Brahma, who had granted him immunity from being killed by gods, Gandharvas or demons. Under the cover of this immunity and the benevolence of Shiva, whom he carefully propitiated, Ravana persecuted gods and mortals. The gods consulted on how they could be rid of Ravana, and decided that the only way was for a god to take human form, for Ravana had been too proud to ask for immunity from humans. Vishnu agreed to be that god, and all the others said they would lend their powers to humans and animals. Vishnu was accordingly born on earth to a certain king, Dasaratha, who after many years without an heir had performed the horse sacrifice. Four sons were born to him as a result. The oldest, called Rama-chandra (Rama), was born to Kausalya; the second son, Bharata, to another wife, Kaikeyi and two more sons, Lakshmana and Satrughna, to a third wife, Sumitra. Rama, whose mother had been the principal queen taking part in the sacrifice, partook of half Vishnu's nature; Bharata of a quarter; and Sumitra's sons of an eighth each. Thus the incarnation was divided among four mortals for this great task.

Rama and Lakshmana were particularly close and even as boys killed many rakshasas who were persecuting poor hermits. One day they heard that King Janaka's beautiful daughter Sita was to be married. Sita was actually an incarnation of Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife, and had received her name, meaning 'furrow', because she had been born of her own will in a field opened up by a plough. A contest was to be held and the man who could bend a bow given to Janaka by Shiva was to receive Sita's hand. Rama was the winner of this contest, actually breaking the bow.

Shortly after Rama's marriage to Sita, Dasaratha decided to abdicate in his favour and the coronation day was proclaimed. But meanwhile a malicious servant of Queen Kaikeyi stirred up her resentment at the pre-ferment of Rama over her own son Bharata, and during Bharata's absence from the court incited her to ask the King for a boon. Without asking what it was Dasaratha consented. He was appalled when he discovered that the boon was Bharata's succession to the throne, but he had given his word and was forced to grant it, and furthermore to send Rama into exile in the forest for fourteen years. Despite Rama's protests, Sita insisted on accompanying him, and together they set off into exile to the sounds of lamentation from the people and from Dasaratha, who died of grief within a week. Lakshmana, devoted to his brother, went with Rama and Sita. Bharata, who during all this had been away, was furious with his mother on his return, blaming her for his father's death. He spared her only out of filial duty, and went to the forest and tried to persuade Rama to return; but Rama declared that he was in honour bound to remain in exile. Bharata returned to the capital, Ayodhya, and proceeded to reign as viceroy, preserving a pair of Rama's sandals on the throne as a symbol of the rightful king.

In the forest, meanwhile, Rama and Lakshmana incurred the wrath of Ravana's sister, the rakshasi giantess Surpanakha. She first fell in love with Rama, who resisted her advances, saying that he was married, but that Lakshmana might wish to have a wife. But Lakshmana also spurned her. Suspecting that Lakshmana too was in love with Sita, Surpanakha attacked her and tried to swallow her. But Lakshmana in turn attacked the giantess, cutting off her nose, ears and breasts.

Surpanakha sent her younger brother Khara to avenge her. He gathered an army of fourteen thousand rakshasas and sent an advance party to attack. Rama killed these first and then destroyed Khara and his entire army. Surpanakha now sought vengeance through her older brother Ravana, but could arouse his interest only by pointing out that Sita was very beautiful and would be a fitting wife for him. Ravana accordingly set out to capture Sita by a ruse (for he knew the true identity and power' of Rama). He sent an enchanted deer to the clearing where Sita liked to pass the time. The creature was so beautiful that she wanted to possess it and asked Rama and Lakshmana to capture it for her. When the brothers had gone Ravana approached in the disguise of an ascetic and seized her. He made off with her to Lanka in his aerial chariot.

On the way Jatayu, an incarnation of Garuda, Vishnu's mount, and king of vultures, fought Ravana but was fatally wounded, living only long enough to return and tell Rama what had happened. Sita also implored the forest and the River Godavari over which she was flying to inform Rama of her fate. When they reached Lanka, Ravana tried to woo her, but she rejected all his advances. He then tried to threaten her into marriage, declaring that he would kill and eat her, but Sita was saved by the intervention of one of Ravana's wives. Ravana dared not force her because, as an inveterate wife-seducer, he was at this time doomed to die if he ever again ravished the wife of another.

Meanwhile, after a lengthy search for Sita, Rama and Lakshmana discovered Jatayu who, as he lay dying, told them the story of her disappearance. Rama piously cremated Jatayu's body, and then set about making plans to recover his wife. He made an alliance with the monkey king Sugriva, son of lndra, who had been exiled from his kingdom by his half-brother Bali (to be distinguished from the Daitya king who figured in the fifth avatar). In return for their help in regaining his kingdom, Sugriva promised to support Rama and Lakshmana against Ravana. Bali was soon killed and Sugriva restored to his throne. After some delay Sugriva raised an army of monkeys and bears, led by his general the celestial Hanuman, son of Vayu, the wind. While the army marched south towards Lanka, Hanuman, who could fly, went ahead and crossed the sea to Lanka, where he found Sita alone in a garden in Ravana's place. He told her of the plans being made for her deliverance and gave her Rama's sig-net ring as a token. Pleased with his success, Hanuman then frolicked in the enemy's garden, pulling up the plants; but he was caught by the rakshasas and brought before Ravana. Still ebullient, Hanuman raised him-self on the coiled mound of his long tail so that he was seated higher than the king. Ravana was about to kill him, but the monkey-general man-aged to stay his hand by claiming diplomatic immunity messengers from the opposing side could not be killed. Ravana nevertheless ordered the rakshasas to set fire to Hanuman's tail, by wrapping it in oily rags and lighting them. But at this moment the monkey made his escape and, trailing his burning tail and jumping from building to building, he succeeded in setting fire to the whole of Lanka.

Hanuman flew back to the main-land and rejoined Rama, giving him valuable information about Ravana's defences. Lanka was indeed a mighty fortress, for it had originally been built by Visvakarma for the god of wealth, Kubera. The vast city, which was built mostly of gold, was surrounded by seven broad moats and seven great walls of stone and metal. It had originally formed the summit of Mount Meru which, as we shall see, was broken off by Vayu and hurled into the sea.

Shortly after Hanuman's return a bridge across the strait to Lanka was completed, despite the efforts of creatures from the dark depths of the ocean to prevent it being built. Its chief architect was a monkey leader called Nala, who was a son of Visvakarma and had the power to make stones float on water. The bridge is therefore sometimes called Nalasetu (Nala's bridge), though its usual title is Rama's Bridge.

A mighty battle was now fought before the gates of the city. Ravana's forces included his son Indrajit, who acquired his name and the boon of immortality from Brahma in return for the freedom of Indra, whom he had captured during Ravana's attack on Swarga, Indra's heaven, and whom he had taken prisoner to Lanka. Indrajit succeeded twice in injuring Rama and Lakshmana, but on each occasion they were cured by a magic herb which Hanuman flew all the way to the Himalayas to obtain Meanwhile Kumbhakarna, Ravana’s brother, a giant whose appetite was insatiable, was devouring hundreds of monkeys. But the monkeys were inflicting heavy losses upon the rakshasas. Finally all the rakshasa generals were killed and the battle resolved into single combat between Rama and Ravana.

As the whole company of gods looked on, these two fought a deadly battle and the earth trembled dunring the encounter. With arrows, Rama struck off Ravana's heads one after the other; but as each one fell another grew in its place. Finally Rama drew forth a magic weapon given to him by Agastya, a renowned sage and noted enemy of the rakshasas. This weapon was infused with the energy of many gods: known as the Brahma weapon, the wind was in its wings sun and fire reposed in its heads, and in its mass lay the weight of Mounts Meru and Mandara. Rama dedicated the weapon and let it loose; it flew straight to its objective in the breast of Ravana, killed him, and returned to Rama's quiver. This was the moment for great rejoicing among the gods, who showered Rama with celestial garlands and resurrected the monkeys fallen in the great battle which saw evil defeated.

Now Rama and Sita could be reunited; but to the amazement of all Rama, when he saw his wife again, spoke coldly to her; he found it hard to believe that she had been able to preserve her virtue as Ravana's captive. Sita protested her unfailing love for Rama, declared her innocence, and determined to prove it by fire-ordeal. She ordered Lakshmana to build and light a pyre and threw her-self on it; as she did so the sky pro-claimed her innocence and the fire god, Agni, led her before Rama, who now accepted her, saying that he him-self had never doubted her but had only wished for public proof.

This seemed to be a happy ending, and the monkey army returned with Rama, Lakshmana and Sita to Ayodhya, where Rama was crowned. But though Rama's reign was one of unprecedented peace and prosperity, Ravana's mischief had not yet run its course. The people of the kingdom began to murmur, doubting Sita's innocence, and though she was pregnant at the time Rama felt obliged to send her away into exile. She took refuge at Valmiki's hermitage in the forest, where she gave birth to twin sons, Kusa and Lava.

These boys, who bore the marks of their high paternity, wandered into Ayodhya when they were about fifteen years old and were recognised by their father, who thereupon sent for Sita. In order that she should publicly declare her innocence, Rama called a great assembly together. In front of it Sita called upon Earth (her mother, for she was born of a furrow) to attest to the truth of her words. Earth made a sign, but it took the form of opening in a cleft beneath Sita and swallowing her up.

Rama, now heartbroken, for Sita was his only wife, wished to follow her. The gods had mercy on him in his despair and sent him Time, in the guise of an ascetic, with the message that he must either stay on earth or ascend to heaven and rule over the gods. Then the sage Durvasas also came to see Rama, and demanded immediate admission to his presence, threatening dreadful curses on him if he were refused. Lakshmana, who had received Durvasas, hesitated; he knew that the interruption of a conference with Time carried the penalty of death. But preferring his own death to the curses of Durvasas on his brother, he went to fetch Rama. Then he calmly went to sit by the riverside to await death. Here the gods showered him with garlands before they conveyed him bodily to Indra's heaven. Rama's end was more deliberate; with great dignity and ceremony he walked into the River Sarayu, where Brahma's voice welcomed him from heaven and he entered into the 'glory of Vishnu'.

Krishna

Vishnu's eighth incarnation attracted to it an even greater body of mythology than the seventh, though its purpose was relatively simple: to kill Kansa, son of a demon and tyrannical king of Mathura. Of the many myths surrounding Krishna the most popular, which concern the aspects of the god in which he receives the greatest worship, have nothing to do with the reasons for his incarnation as an avatar of Vishnu. Indeed the Dionysiac myths concerning the young Krishna, with their strong Greek influence, have little to do with native ideas cur-rent during the great mythologising period of the epics. Sometimes, Krishna is considered as a great deity in his own right and then his brother Balarama is said to be Vishnu's eighth incarnation. Krishna's life falls into four main parts: childhood, when he performed great feats of strength; youth, when he dallied with the cowgirls; manhood, when he per-formed the task for which he had been born; and middle age, when he became the great ruler of Dwarka and took part in the Bharata war, acting as Arjuna's charioteer and pronouncing his great teaching on the subjects of dharma and bhakti.

Krishna's birth and childhood During the second age of the world the Yadavas of northern India, whose capital was Mathura, were ruled over by King Ugrasena. They were a peace-loving, agricultural people, who could have lived quietly had a misfortune not befallen their queen, Pavanarekha. One day as she was walking in the forest she was. waylaid and raped by the demon Drumalika, who took the shape of her husband Ugrasena. Drumalika resumed his demon form and revealed that the son to be born, Kansa, would conquer the nine divisions of the earth, be supreme ruler, and struggle with one whose name would be Krishna. Ten months later Kansa was born and as Pavanarekha remained silent about his true paternity Ugrasena assumed the son was his own. As he grew up his evil nature showed itself. He was disrespectful to his father. He murdered children, and forced the defeated King Jarasandha of Magadha to yield up two of his daughters whom he took as wives. Next he de-posed his father, ascended the throne and banned the worship of Vishnu. He extended his kingdom by conquest and committed many crimes.

The gods, at the entreaty of Earth, decided it was time to intervene; Vishnu should restore the balance of good and evil. Vishnu made use of two Yadavas loyal to him. They were Devaka, an uncle of Kansa, and Vasudeva, to whom Devaka's six elder daughters were married. Vishnu ordained that the seventh daughter, Devaki, should also be married to Vasudeva. He plucked a black hair from his own body and a white one from the serpent Ananta, or Shesha, on whose coiled body he reclines, declaring that the white hair should become Devaki's seventh son, called Balarama; the black hair would be-come her eighth son, called Krishna. At Devaki's wedding, however, a voice warned Kansa of these preparations for his downfall; but he agreed to spare Devaki on condition that each of her sons should be killed at birth. Accordingly, her first six sons were slaughtered as soon as they drew breath. She then became pregnant with a seventh son, and Kansa received a second warning, for he heard that gods and goddesses were being born in the shape of cowherds. He therefore ordered the systematic killing of all the cowherds that could be found and this endangered the life of Nanda, Vasudeva's closest friend. Nevertheless it was Nanda who was chosen to help preserve Devaki's seventh and eighth sons. Vasudeva sent another of his wives, Rohini, to stay with Nanda, and Vishnu had the child in Devaki's womb transferred to that of Rohini. In due course Balarama was thus born to Rohini and Kansa was given to understand that Devaki had miscarried.

But the time came for Devaki to conceive again. Kansa took the pre-caution of imprisoning both mother and father. He had them manacled together and set men, elephants, lions and dogs to guard the prison. But the eighth child was Krishna and he re-assured his parents from the womb. Indeed when he was born all Kansa's precautions were seen to have been in vain; the manacles fell away and the baby Krishna, assuming the form of Vishnu, ordered his father to take him to the house of Nanda where Nanda's wife Yashoda had just been delivered of a child and to substitute the two babies. Krishna then resumed his infant form and Vasudeva put him in a basket, placed it on his head and left the prison freely, for the doors had swung open and the guards had fallen asleep.

On his way Vasudeva came to the River Jumna and attempted to ford it; but the waters rose steadily until they nearly submerged him. At this point Krishna stretched out his foot from the basket and placed it on the waters, which thereupon subsided, allowing Vasudeva to pass. At Nanda's house he found that Yashoda's baby was a girl but he took her back to the prison, whose doors reclosed and where the guards, waking up, suspected nothing. They announced the birth of a girl to Kansa, who him-self attempted to smash the infant's body on a rock. But the baby was transformed into the goddess Devi who, having told Kansa that his future enemy had escaped him and that he was powerless, herself vanished into heaven.

Nanda, who did not suspect that Krishna was not his own son, arranged a great celebration of the birth, to which he invited all the cowherds and their wives. At the festivities the Brahmins foretold that Krishna would be a slayer of demons, would bring prosperity to the land of the Yadavas and would be called Lord of the Cowgirls.

His childhood revealed his dual character. At times he seemed just an exceptionally lovable boy; in other episodes he began to show his strength and was recognised as a god.

During his first year Krishna was three times attacked by a demon. The first one was Putana, a child-killing ogress who, taking the form of a beautiful girl, was allowed to suckle Krishna. But the poison she had put on her breast could not harm Krishna who, on the contrary, sucked so hard that he drew all the life out of Putana, who resumed her monstrous form as she died. The second enemy was Saktasura, a monstrous flying demon who lighted on a cart loaded with pitchers beneath which Krishna was lying. But though the cart collapsed as Saktasura planned, it crushed him rather than Krishna, who had turned the tables with a well directed kick. The third attack was mounted by Trinavarta, a whirlwind demon who snatched Krishna out of Yashoda’s lap. A great storm arose as Trinavarta flew away with Krishna, but Krishna twisted the demon round and smashed him against a rock, at which the storm subsided.

As Krishna began to grow up he amused himself and, despite them-selves, his mother and all the womenfolk, with various pranks involving stealing the cowgirls' curds and butter, upsetting their pails of milk and blaming their children for his own mischief.

But this idyllic childhood was interrupted by the efforts of Kansa who, still searching for any child who might be the one destined to kill him, had sent demons to attack all children of Krishna's age. He overcame in turn a cow demon called Vatasura; a crane demon called Bakasura, who swallowed Krishna but was forced to release him when Krishna became too hot; and a snake demon, Ugrasura, who swallowed Krishna but whom Krishna burst open from within by expanding his own body. Again and again Krishna was attacked by Kansa's demons, but on each occasion he extricated himself, killing the ass demon Dhenuka, subduing the snake demon Kaliya by dancing on his heads, and swallowing up a fire sent to consume Krishna and his companions in a forest. Balarama, who was Krishna's constant companion, also killed some demons, such as Pralamba, a demon in human form.

Krishna's youth During his childhood, Krishna showed his defiance of the world of demons. During his youth he demonstrated his attitude to the Brahmins and to Indra and the Vedic gods. One day when Krishna and his companions were hungry they smelled food and found that it was being cooked by some Brahmins in preparation for a sacrifice. They asked for some to eat, but were angrily rebuffed. The Brahmins' wives, however, were eager to oblige; Krishna had a reputation as a stealer of hearts and they disobeyed their husbands and brought him food, recognizing him as God and feasting their eyes on him. When they re-turned, gratified, to their husbands they found them not only willing to forgive but angry with themselves be-cause they had missed this unexpected opportunity of serving the young god.

Krishna then persuaded Nanda and the other cowherds that their sacrifices to Indra were useless, for Indra was an inferior deity and subject to defeat by demons. Krishna convinced them that their salvation lay either in following their duty of being ruled by their fate, or in worshipping their early nature divinities, which in their case were contained in the spirit of the mountain, Govardhana, on which they grazed their flocks and which sheltered them and their beasts. The cowherds accordingly performed a great ceremony in honour of the mountain, and were rewarded for their devotions by the manifestation of Krishna himself as the spirit of Govardhana. Indra was enraged and forgetting who Krishna really was sent a terrible storm with torrents of rain to punish the cowherds. Krishna protected them from the flooding that this seven-day storm would normally have produced by raising the mountain on one finger, giving the cow-herds shelter underneath. Indra admitted his defeat. He descended to earth accompanied by his white elephant Airavata and the cow of plenty, Surabhi, and worshipped Krishna.

The story of the Brahmins' wives hints at an aspect of the Krishna myth which receives more attention than any other: his amorous adventures with women, in particular the married cowgirls (gopis). All these stories are noted for the beauty of their sensuous descriptions, but though a symbolic, spiritual meaning is ascribed to them all, it must be remarked that in later life Krishna repudiated his cowgirl loves and became the model husband and embodiment of married bliss. However, as is often said in Indian scriptures, the gods are not to be judged by human moral standards and many of the cowherds and cowgirls were, moreover, divine in-carnations on earth.

Krishna's amorous adventures began when he was young, and developed naturally from his childhood teasing of the cowgirls. One day when a group of them, already smitten with love for him, went bathing in the River Jumna in an attempt to make their wishes come true, Krishna came across them as they were calling out his name. He stole their clothes and hid with them in a tree. Despite their earlier pleas the cowgirls were mortified at the situation and tried to hide their nakedness beneath the water; but Krishna told them that Varuna inhabited the water so they were no better off in it. He insisted that each of the cowgirls come forward to the - tree to receive back her clothes. Sending them away after all this teasing, Krishna mollified them by promising that he would dance with them in the following autumn.

When autumn came, Krishna went one moonlit night into the forest and played upon his flute to call the cowgirls, who all slipped away from their husbands and went to join him. After some teasing on his part the dance began, sending the lovesick girls into ecstasies of delight, each one dancing with Krishna as if he were her lover. But Krishna slipped away with one of them and when the other girls realised they were alone they set out with lamentations to look for him. First they found his footprints, accompanied by those of a girl. But the girl, too sure of herself and proud at being singled out, had asked

Krishna to carry her; annoyed, he abandoned her on the spot. The others found her, and after their end-less search and entreaties that he should return, Krishna relented. They took up the dance again. The girls became frantic with desire and, using his powers of delusion, Krishna made each believe that he was dancing with, embracing and loving her. The dance and its erotic delights continued for six months and ended with the whole company bathing in the River Jumna. The girls returned to their homes, and found that no one or knew they had ever been away.

The story of the girl who was singled out is elaborated in Indian poetry (rather than in myth), where she is called Radha. The plight of the lovelorn girl is described as she waits for Krishna while he dallies with others, and the emotions of each of them at the various stages of their story, their misunderstandings and the fulfilment of their love, became the classical images of Indian love poetry.

In the myth, though Krishna returned once or twice to the cowgirls this great dance of love marks the climax of his idyll and the end of his youth.

The slaying of Kansa Meanwhile, the attacks of Kansa's demons continued. One of them took place at night when Krishna and Balarama were with the cowgirls. Sankhasura, a yak. sha demon, came among them and attacked some of the girls; hearing their screams, Krishna pursued Sankhasura and cut off his head. On another night, a bull demon careered among the herd, but Krishna caught it and broke its neck.

About this time Kansa was informed by a sage of the identity of his future killer and the rest of the story, He immediately cast Vasudeva and Devaki into prison and laid plans to capture Krishna. He decided that the best way would be to lure Krishna to Mathura after failing in some more attempts to kill him in the forest by sending Kesin, the same asura who had once fought and nearly overcome Indra. Kesin took the form of a horse, but again Krishna was equal to his opponent; he thrust his hand down the throat of the horse, causing it to swell within. The horse burst apart. Then Kansa sent a wolf demon to waylay Krishna. He disguised himself as a beggar; but once more Krishna was prepared, and when the demon resumed his true form and attacked him, he seized and strangled him.

Kansa now abandoned such tactics and sent the head of his court, Akrura, to invite Krishna to attend a great sacrifice at Mathura in honour of Shiva. But Akrura was a secret devotee of Krishna and warned him that Kansa had arranged for him to be killed in a match with a wrestler called Chanura, and that he had stationed at the gates a savage elephant which was to trample Krishna to death should the other plan fail.

Despite the protests of the cowgirls, Krishna, Balarama and a party of the cowherds set off for Mathura, where news of their arrival had gone before them. In Mathura the women leant from their windows and rooftops to greet Krishna; Kansa's tailor himself made them new clothes; another of his servants, the hunchback Kubja, anointed Krishna with perfume, in re-turn for which he straightened her back.

At the gate of the city Krishna picked up the great bow of Shiva and broke it into pieces (just as Rama had broken it) and killed all the guards. As he entered Mathura the great elephant attacked him, but after a mighty struggle was overcome. Balarama and Krishna took the tusks and paraded around with them. Then Chanura and the other wrestlers attempted to worst the brothers, but one after the other were routed. Kansa, now desperate, ordered his demons to bring forth Krishna's parents and his own father Ugrasena; they were to be put to death together with Krishna and Balarama when the brothers were overcome. When news of this reached Krishna he slew the remaining demons without mercy, then Kansa arid his eight brothers.

The main object of his life, the killing of Kansa, was now achieved but Krishna was not yet satisfied. Kansa's allies were still at large and powerful enough to disturb the balance of good and evil just as Kansa had done. Having restored Ugrasena to his rightful throne and been reunited with his real parents, Vasudeva and Devaki, Krishna himself abandoned the pastoral life and became a sort of feudal prince, thus entering the last phase of his life.

Krishna the prince Krishna was shortly justified in his decision to continue the fight against the demons, for another, a former rival of Kansa named Jarasandha, soon summoned up great armies of demons at the insistence of his two daughters, Kansa's widows. Among his many allies was another demon, Kalayavana. Seven-teen times Jarasandha and his armies attacked Mathura and were defeated by Krishna and Balarama single-handed, and each time the troops were slaughtered but Jarasandha was released to return, bringing more demon troops to be slaughtered.

Finally Krishna wearied of these battles and decided to build a new capital which would be easier to de-fend. He assigned to Visvakarma, the divine architect, the task of building in one night the fortress city of Dwarka (on the west coast; historically, settled by the Aryans about the sixth century B.C.). When it was completed all the Yadavas were trans-ported to the new capital; on the way the demons were allowed to believe that they had encircled them on a hill and destroyed them by fire.

Krishna was now ready to settle down and sought wives for himself and his brother. Balarama married a princess called Revati and Krishna heard of a beautiful princess called Rukmini, who was meanwhile told of Krishna by Shiva and Brahma disguised as beggars. Both fell in love at the mere description of the other, one the stage was set for a great romantic passion which was to supersede all those of Krishna's youth.

Rukmini was betrothed (on the advice of her evil brother Rukma) to Sisupala, a cousin of Krishna but an avatar of the demon whose other avatars were Hiranyakasipu and Ravana. Just before the wedding was due to take place Rukmini sent a letter to Krishna beseeching his intervention. He answered it by arriving on the wedding morning while Rukmini was praying to Devi and snatching her away in his chariot. Rukma, Sisupala and Jarasandha who was present with his demon army for the wedding decided to avenge this, but Balarama routed the demons and all but Rukma fled. He tried to kill Krishna, but was taken captive. Rukmini begged for his life and Balarama released him.

Krishna now married Rukmini and celebrated the defeat of yet more demons at the time of his nuptials. In the same way he married seven further wives; each marriage was opposed in some way by demons and so brought about the destruction of yet more evil. Thus Krishna married Jambavati, daughter of the king of the bears Jambavan, and Satyabhama. daughter of Satrajit, and Kalindi, daughter of the sun, and four other girls.

He now seemed to have achieved the aims for which he was born, and Earth appealed to Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva for a reward for her part in securing the presence of Krishna in the world. She requested a son who would never die and who would never be equalled. The three gods granted her a boon but not quite in the form that she expected, for they also warned her that the son, Naraka, would be attacked by Krishna and killed by him at Earth's own request.

Naraka became the powerful king of Pragjyotisha and conquered all the kings of the earth; he became an implacable enemy of the gods in the sky and routed them; carried off the earrings of the mother of the gods Aditi, and wore them in his impregnable castle at Pragjyotisha; he took Indra's canopy and placed it over his own head; took into captivity sixteen thousand one hundred girls, earthly and divine; and finally, taking the form of an elephant, he raped the daughter of Visvakarma, the divine architect.

The gods' prophecies were duly fulfilled. Krishna attacked and defeated Naraka, though he was assisted in his defence of Pragjyotisha by the five-headed arch-demon Muru and his seven sons. When the vast demon armies had been defeated the palace was opened to reveal the countless jewels Naraka had amassed besides the earrings of Aditi, the canopy of Indra, and the-sixteen thousand one hundred virgins. Krishna took all these girls back to Dwarka and married them, for on seeing him all had fallen in love with him.

Krishna now settled down with his sixteen thousand one hundred and eight wives and was able to delight them all simultaneously. In due course each of them bore him ten sons and one daughter, and despite the great number of his wives, he was aware of their least whim and ready to pander to their every desire. One day he gave Rukmini a flower from the Parijata or Kalpa tree, the heavenly wishing tree which grew in Indra's heaven and belonged to Indrani. A sight of this tree rejuvenated the old, and when Krishna's third wife, Satyabhama, saw the present he had made to Rukmini, she asked him to bring her the whole tree. So Krishna set off for lndra's heaven, taking with him lndra's canopy and Aditi's ear-rings, and asked for the tree. But Indra had not forgotten his humiliation over the Govardhana episode and re-fused, whereupon Krishna seized the tree and made off with it. Indra raised forces and pursued him but was defeated; however, Krishna returned the tree of his own free will a year later. The demons meanwhile were not forgotten; many of their leaders whom Krishna and Balarama had earlier defeated were plotting revenge. Jarasandha had by now imprisoned twenty thousand rajas, so Krishna set out with two of his Pan-Java cousins, Bhima and Arjuna, to release them.

On the way Krishna offered good counsel. He informed Bhima that the way to overcome Jarasandha was to split him in two, and after single combat against the demon lasting twenty-seven days Bhima succeeded in tearing him in half. The next to be dealt with was Sisupala, who had never forgiven Krishna for depriving him of his bride Rukmini and never ceased attacking him. But Krishna repeatedly spared his life because he had promised Sisupala's mother that he would forgive him a hundred wrongs. At a great sacrifice held by Yudhisthira, Sisupala stepped for-ward to contest the decision to treat Krishna as the most honoured guest, Ting that Krishna was of low caste, associated with cowherds, a thief, a philanderer and an enemy of Indra. But this was his hundred and first attack. Krishna let him speak, but then stood up, cast his magic quoit weapon, Sudarsana, and killed him instantaneously. Sometime later, Sisupala's two brothers were also killed.

The climax of Krishna's long battle with the forces of evil came, as we shall see, in the struggle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Throughout his career Krishna had been related by family ties to both gods and demons. So in the Mahabharata he was related to both the good Pandavas and the evil Kauravas. He took no active part in the battles, only giving advice and letting the mortal warriors fight out the epic struggle. The most important advice he gave is contained in the Bhagavad Gita, where he explained to Arjuna that all is illusion, including battle and death in arms, and that it is not the prerogative of human beings to question their duty: they must merely follow it, and leave the higher perspective to the gods. Nevertheless, through his intervention Krishna fin-ally secured that for which he came to earth even though to the human protagonists the struggle must have seemed futile.

Krishna now decided that he could return to heaven. But his own mortal end seems tragic; the weapons which were to destroy the Yadava race and bring about his own death were created as the result of a curse by some Brahmins who had been mocked by Yadava boys, one of whom, Samba, was Krishna's son by Jambavati. The Brahmins declared that Samba, who had dressed up as a pregnant woman, would give birth to an iron club that would cause the downfall of the Yadavas. In due course the club was 'born', and though it was smashed by order of King Ugrasena and thrown into the sea, splinters from it escaped destruction; one was swallowed by a fish, later found and made into an arrow head; the others grew into some rushes hard as iron.

Portents now began to appear in Dwarka of impending destruction, and the Yadavas, frightened by the storms and lightning, misshapen births and other horrors appearing all about them, asked Krishna how they might avert catastrophe. On his advice the men set out on a pilgrimage to Prabhasa. But after performing the various rituals, the Yadavas fell to drinking by the river and were assailed by a destructive flame of dissension. In the fight which ensued Krishna's intervention only made their fury greater, and by the end they had all been killed either by each other or by Krishna, who became angry with them. The weapons they used were the rushes growing by the river bank which were the very ones which grew from the splintered club.

Both Krishna and Balarama were now free to leave the earth. Balarama performed austerities by the seashore and, dying, was rejoined to the Absolute. Shesha or Ananta, the divine serpent from whose white hair Balarama was born, flowed out from his mouth. The ocean came to meet him, carrying other serpents in its waters.

Krishna too assumed a yogic posture of abstraction. He sat beneath a fig tree with his left heel pointing out-wards. A passing hunter, his arrow tipped with the one remaining splinter of the iron club, mistook Krishna's foot for a deer and shot at it, thus piercing Krishna's one vulnerable spot and mortally wounding him. The hunter, coming closer and recognizing Krishna, immediately asked his pardon. He was forgiven and granted liberation.

Finally, before he died, Krishna sent word to Dwarka that the city would shortly be engulfed by the ocean and warned the remaining Yadavas to leave. But first a great funeral was held for Krishna and Balarama. Vasudeva, Devaki and Rohini, who died of grief at the news of Krishna's death, were placed on the funeral pyre with his body and that of Balarama; they were joined by Krishna's eight principal wives, Balarama's wives, and King Ugrasena, who threw themselves on the flames.

Buddha

Vishnu's ninth incarnation, appearing at the start of the Kaliyuga (the pre-sent age), clearly represents an attempt to subordinate Buddhism to the Hindu system, and in it the means employed to preserve the world differ radically from those in all the other avatars. Vishnu in his Buddha incarnation was not the straightforward heroic upholder of virtue, but rather the devious devil's advocate, who propagated ideas which would lead to wickedness and weaken the opponents of the gods, causing them ultimately either to be destroyed or to turn back for their salvation to their old faith in the traditional gods.

The doctrines supposedly put forward by Buddha bear only a distorted relation to Buddha's teaching as understood by his followers. He is said to have taught that the world has no creator and therefore no universal spirit of whom Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are manifestations. The three supreme gods of the Hindus were therefore just ordinary mortal beings on a par with men. The doctrine of samsara and the associated idea that people should follow their duty dharma, as prescribed for them according to their caste had no validity; for death was no more than peaceful sleep and annihilation heaven and hell existed only on earth the one being pleasure and the other bodily suffering. Sacrifices were of no value, for the only true blessing was the individual's release from ignorance. The pursuit of pleasure was to be narrowly interpreted; to propagate this doctrine Lakshmi was incarnated as a woman who taught her disciples that since the body after death simply crumbled, heaven on earth was to be sought exclusively through sexual pleasures.

Ironically, as we shall see, the Buddhists did in some sense turn to Hindu belief, though this movement was far from stemming from Buddha's hedonistic teaching rather the reverse. The mythology and cosmology that became attached to Buddhism as it became a popular mass religion, rather than a philosophers’ creed, were rooted in Hindu belief and the Hindu gods even inhabited some of the lower heavens of the Buddhist cosmos.

Kalki

The tenth and last incarnation of Vishnu has yet to come. It will usher in the end of our present age. Social and spiritual life will have degenerated to their lowest point. Sovereigns will set the tone for the final decline; they will be mean-minded and of limited power but during their short reigns they will attempt to profit to the maximum from their power. They will kill their subjects and their neighbors will follow their example, and nothing will count but outward show. Even the Brahmins will have nothing to distinguish them but their sacred thread, while the apparent wealth of the materialists will be an empty display, for real worth will have departed from everything. Truth and love will disappear from the earth, falsehood will be the common currency of social existence and sensuality the sole bond between man and wife. India will lose its sacred associations, and the earth will be worshipped for its mineral treasures alone. The sacred rites will disappear: mere washing will pass for purification; mutual assent will replace the marriage ceremony; bluff will replace learning; and the robes of office will confer the right to govern. Finally even the appearance of civilization will vanish: the people will revert to an animal existence, wearing nothing the bark of trees, feeding upon the wild fruits of the forest, and exposed the elements. No man or woman will live for longer than twenty-three years.

At this point of degeneration Vishnu will appear in person on earth, riding a white horse, Kalki, which is his tenth incarnation. Vishnu will ride through the world, his arm aloft and bearing a drawn sword blazing like a comet. He will accomplish the final destruction of the wicked and prepare for the renewal of creation and the resurgence of virtue in the next Mahayuga.

The Saguna Brahman, The Great God and The Trinity

November 19, 2013, 4:26 am

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Saguna Brahman, The Great God

To ordinary mortals the Nirguna Brahman (without form or attributes) is impersonal and hard to comprehend. Therefore, in relation to the world and to make the Universal Spirit easily understandable, we have the Saguna Brahman, or the Brahman with form and attributes who is known as the One Great God or Ishwara. To those less developed spiritually and to the average man and woman, the concept of God has to be one with a form, a sort of Superior Being in human form on whom one can fix one's mind, especially during prayer.

The Trinity

The three main functions of God-head, Creation, Preservation and Destruction, are further simplified by the One Great God, Ishwara, being called Brahma, when He takes over the Creation of the Universe, Vishnu, when He assumes the role of the Preserver, and Shiva, when He is the Destroyer.

A high degree of symbolism has been evolved to explain the attributes and qualities of God-head to the masses.

Different iconographical features are depicted for the different deities at different times, depending on the roles they perform. In one temple Vishnu may be shown in a peaceful form and in another in a role destroying evil. The weapons he holds could differ in these two forms. However a few of the major depictions are given below.

Brahma the Creator, for example, is shown with four heads facing all four directions symbolizing that he has created the entire Universe. The fact that, after each Kalpa (or age), he meditates and recreates the Universe we live in is symbolised by the Vedas he holds in his hand which guide him, and the kamandalu or vessel which is used in the ritual of prayer prior to tapasya (meditation and penance), after which he creates the Universe. He sits on a lotus which is a symbol of purity, as the lotus usually grows in muddy waters but is untouched by the dirt and mire from which it emerges. So also the true Yogi (one who practices Yoga and is an evolved being), should be unaffected by the world around him. To emphasise the closeness of Creation and Preservation, Brahma is shown emerging from the navel of Vishnu, the Preserver.

The feminine aspect of the Creator is personified in the beautiful form of Saraswati, the consort of Brahma, who is the embodiment of learning and wisdom. In her hand she holds the vina, symbolic of R'ta, the order in the Cosmic Universe and of Nada-Brahman, the music or rhythm of the Universe. It is out of the sound of OM that the Universe was created. The hum or Nada, or the Inner Sound, the Music of the Cosmos, is also called the Music of the Spheres.

The beads in her fingers bring out the importance of prayer and meditation, and the palm leaf scrolls she holds represent learning and wisdom without which man is nothing. Her saree, always white, reminds us that all knowledge of value should be pristine pure and unsullied by untruth. She sits either on the pure lotus or on the peacock, in the latter case to remind us that the ego (symbolised by the peacock) is to be suppressed. The graceful swan is also her vehicle, to remind us to separate the chaff from the grain of true knowledge, just as the swan removes the water from milk before consuming the latter.

Vishnu is represented as lying on the many-headed cobra, Ananta, in the ocean of milk. Ananta denotes cosmic energy and the ocean symbolises ananda or the endless bliss and grace of the Brahman. Vishnu is given the colour blue to symbolize Infinity, as he is as limitless as the blue sky. He holds the chakra or discus in one hand denoting that he maintains Dharma (righteousness) and order in the Universe. The shankha or conch that he holds in the other hand is for the removal of ignorance and is also symbolic of Nada-Brahman or the Music of the Cosmos, as the conch when placed to the ear has a deep humming sound. The gada or mace is for removing the evil in the world and the lotus is the symbol of the beauty and purity of the Cosmic Universe. The vehicle of Vishnu is Garuda, the man-eagle, a figure of great strength, power and piety.

The feminine aspect of the Preserver is Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. The grace of God is personified in her as one who brings prosperity. One hand she holds in the abhaya mudra (with the hand held open with the palm facing the devotee and the fingers facing upwards) which says "Do not fear" and the other in the varada mudra (with the hand with the palm facing the devotee but with the fingers facing downwards) symbolic of the prosperity and grace she gives to the human race. She sits on the lotus and holds lotus flowers in her hand emphasizing the importance of pure living without which her grace and giving are meaningless and prosperity but an empty shell.

Bhoo Devi, or Mother Earth, is depicted as the second consort of Vishnu.

Shiva, the Destroyer of the Universe, is often shown as Nataraja, the King of Dancers, his dance depicting Cosmic Energy. He dances on the demon, Apasmara Purusha, who represents our egos. Only by destroying one's ego can one attain God-head. In one hand Shiva holds a deer which denotes man's unsteady mind which darts hither and thither like the deer but has to be brought under control. In another he holds a rattle-drum, the symbol of creative activity, and in the third, the fire, the symbol of destruction. His fourth hand in the abhaya mudra says, 'Do not fear. I shall protect as I destroy'. The circle of fire behind him symbolises the continuity and eternal motion of the Universe through the paths of Creation, Preservation and Destruction. The river goddess Ganga, on Shiva's head, denotes eternity and purity, and the crescent moon reminds us of the waxing and waning of the Moon and the movement of Time. The cobra coiling around him is, again, the symbol of Cosmic Energy. Shiva's garland of skulls reminds man that death comes to all and his third eye depicts that God is all-seeing and wise. Placed in the centre of the forehead on which the Yogi concentrates while in meditation, this spot is symbolic as the seat of wisdom. Shiva opens his third eye to destroy evil.

On the right ear Shiva wears a kundala (a jewel worn by men) and on his left ear a tatanka (ear ornament worn by women). This is to tell us that he is Ardhanarishwara, half-man and half-woman (as Parvati, his consort, is part of Shiva himself), symbolizing the ideal union of man and woman. As fire and heat are inseparable, so are Shiva and Parvati one, and purusha (the spirit) and prakriti (matter) are combined in them.

The ashes worn by Shiva tell us that the body is transient and ends in ashes. The tiger-skin that he wears around his waist is the ahamkara or arrogant pride which, like the tiger, springs out of us and has to be suppressed. Shiva not only destroys the Universe but is also the destroyer of man's illusions, and the cycle of birth and death which binds us to this world.

Soon after the creation of this world, Shiva is believed to have appeared in the form of a pillar of fire, reaching into space at one end and into the bowels of the earth at the other, and neither Brahma nor Vishnu was able to trace the beginning or end of this supernatural manifestation. Therefore Shiva is symbolised as a Linga or Lingam (meaning a symbol) representing this endless pillar of cosmic power and light.

He is also worshipped as Lingodbhavamurti, in which the figure of Shiva emerges out of the pillar of fire, with Brahma and Vishnu standing on either side.

In all Shiva temples, his vehicle, Nandi the bull, faces the figure of Shiva symbolizing the soul of man, the Jiva, yearning for Paramatma, the Great Soul (God).

Cosmic Energy in its dynamic form is symbolised for us ordinary mortals in the form of Shakti, the World Mother, who is the power and energy by which the Great God creates, preserves and destroys the world. She is shown in many forms. As Uma or Parvati, she is the gentle consort of Shiva. As Kamakshi or Rajarajeshwari, she is the Great Mother. In one hand she holds a noose, signifying worldly attachments from which we should free ourselves. The hook in her other hand is indicative of her prodding us on to the path of righteousness. The sugarcane plant she carries is a symbol of the sweetness of the Mind. The arrows she holds in one hand are our five sense-perceptions which we have to conquer. In the form of Durga she rides the tiger, the ego and arrogance that Man has to subdue. With the weapons in her hand she fights the eight evils (hate, greed, passion, vanity, contempt of others, envy, jealousy and the illusions with which man binds himself). In her angry form she is known as Kali, the personification of Time. In this frightening form she destroys Mahishasura (the demon buffalo) who is the symbol of ignorance which is man's greatest enemy. Her arms and weapons are constantly flaying and fighting evil in all forms. The skulls she wears tell you that Man is mortal. Her dark form is symbolic of the future which is beyond our knowledge, and as Kali she tells you that Time (Kala) is immutable and all-powerful in the Universe.

Ganesha, also known as Ganapati or Vinayaka, is the son of Shiva and Parvati and is the first deity to be worshipped during any ritual, as he is considered the remover of obstacles. His huge body represents the Cosmos or Universe and his trunk the Pranava or OM, the symbol of the Brahman. His elephant's head denotes superior intelligence and the snake around his waist represents cosmic energy. The noose is to remind us that wordly attachments are a noose and the hook in his hand is to prod Man on to the path of righteousness. The rosary beads are for the pursuit of prayer and the broken tusk is symbolic of knowledge as it is with this tusk that he is believed to have acted as the scribe who wrote down the Mahabharata as dictated by Sage Vyasa. The modaka or sweet in his hand is to remind us of the sweetness of one's inner self.

The physical form of Ganesha is corpulent and awkward to teach us that beauty of the outward form has no connection with inner beauty or spiritual perfection. Ganesha, on his vehicle, the mouse, symbolises the equal importance of the biggest and the smallest of creatures to the Great God.

The other son of Shiva, Kartikeya, is also known as Kumara, Skanda, Subramanya, Shanmukha or Muruga (the last name used in Tamil Nadu). As Kartikeya he is designated the deity of war, guarding right and destroying evil. As Shanmukha, the six-headed, he teaches that we have five senses and the mind, and only when all six are in harmony is there spiritual growth. As Subramanya, he has two consorts, Valli and Devasena, who embody Jnana Shakti, the power of knowledge and Kriya Shakti, the power of action. He rides the peacock, reminding us not to let pride and egotism get the better of us. In his hand he holds the vel or sharp spear, symbolizing the developed sharp intellect, and with it he guards the spiritual progress of the world.

Most visitors to our country wonder why gods and goddesses of the Hindu Pantheon are shown with several arms, and sometimes with several faces. The main reason is to show them to be supernatural, just as in some religions angels are shown to have wings. We are aware that the Supreme Brahman is formless. It is Man, in the primitive stages of society, who has given the Great Spirit understandable human forms of His power and His attributes, to teach the ordinary people of His greatness, His omniscience and His omnipotence.

Also, one must realise that Hinduism adopted and assimilated the religious beliefs of all the primitive tribes and peoples with whom the early Hindus came into contact. Its tolerance of all religions is unique as it did not destroy the beliefs of the peoples the ancient Hindus conquered but absorbed them. Every religion which Hinduism absorbed had its own gods and beliefs (some even had totems), and every race its own rituals and rites. Hinduism assimilated them all, never destroying the beliefs in the gods or the totems of any of the tribes and peoples whom the early Hindus conquered. It is one of the greatest miracles of the spiritual world that Hinduism gathered so many, many different religions in its fold, and brought thousands of differing religious beliefs under the umbrella of Vedic Hinduism, with the Upanishadic aphorism, Ekam Sat viprah bahudha vadanti' (the Great God is One, and the learned only call Him by different names).

By the time Adi Shankara, the great Indian philosopher, arrived on the scene, there were thousands of gods and goddesses of the various races and tribes and innumerable and confusing rituals being performed by Hindus.

Born in Kalady in Kerala in the 8th century, Shankara was the greatest exponent of the Advaita philosophy (according to which God is within Man, and the Atma, the individual soul and the Brahman, the Universal Soul are one and not two). He refuted the Buddhist teaching that the world is totally unreal and said that the objective world does exist in relation to the ordinary mind but is not the Ultimate Reality. In relation to the latter, however, it is an illusion.

Travelling by foot several times to all corners of this vast land, in his short span of life of 32 years he established the earliest Hindu monastic order with Matams or Ashrams in the south, west, north and east of this country. (Even today we have Matams of this order at Sringeri and Kanchi in the south, Dwarka in the west, Badri in the Himalayas, and Puri in the east.) Each Matam was placed under an Acharya or teacher, called a Shankaracharya during his tenure, who propagated Advaita or the philosophy of Monism.

As a religious reformer in a period of spiritual crisis, as existed then (and exists now), he taught that vijnana (intuition), vichara (enquiry), and anubhava (experience), each have their place in spiritual experience but it is essential for knowledge to be acquired by personal investigation and one's own experience alone, as even the Vedas, he said, only reveal, they do not command. He postulated that all paths to God are ancillary to Jnana Marga or the path of knowledge.

He was one of the great mystical seers who, with their intuitory knowledge, anticipated many of today's scientific theories on primal energy (Shakti), the atom (Anu), vibrations of the Universe (Shabda Brahmam), and the physical and psychic world around us.

He also wrote commentaries on Vedanta, the Gita and the Upanishads, and gave new dimensions to devotional literature by including in it mysticism clothed in exquisite poetry.

Never forgetting the needs of the untutored devout of heart, he established new systems of worship for their guidance. He codified popular Hinduism and grouped all the gods and goddesses under six main streams of worship.

They are Shaiva (worship of Shiva), Vaishnava (worship of Vishnu), Shakta (worship of Shakti, the Mother Goddess), Saura (worship of Surya, the Sun God), Ganapatya (worship of Ganesha or Ganapati), and Kaumara (worship of Kumara, also known as Muruga or Subramanya). He taught that these six Bhakti-darshanas or paths of prayer are not in conflict but are for the choice of the worshipper striving to reach God.

Adi Shankara is therefore called the `Shanmata-sthhapana Acharya', the teacher who established the six-fold form of worship and taught that worship of any one of the deities was as good as worship of the other, reaching towards a common goal. He did not destroy any existing beliefs but brought order into the Hindu fold in a form which did not exist earlier. Many Hindu communities which had given up the path of Hindu beliefs came back to it, attracted by Shankara's intellectual approach to popular religion.

From this it must not be presumed that the aim of the Hindu is only to worship one of these six deities. Such worship is only the means to an end. The ultimate goal is for the individual soul in each one of us, known as the Atma, to attain the Brahman or the Universal Soul.

Writer Name:- Shakunthala Jagannathan

The Samsara and The Dharma

November 19, 2013, 4:39 am

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Samsara

All souls are not able to achieve this happy state even after death. On the other hand most of us die only to be born again and again. This cycle of birth, death and rebirth is called Samsara, and every soul must go through this cycle of births and deaths before it attains moksha or liberation. Only the soul which reaches perfection in this life becomes one with the Brahman and is not born again.

Hindus believe in Samsara as we do not accept that the Great God would be cruel enough to create the great inequalities that exist in the world. He would not create one child beloved of happy parents, another who is handicapped or blind and a third who is unwanted, born to impoverished parents and left hungry. The inequalities of life are understandable only when we realise that they are of Man's own Karma or actions and not of God's creation. Each one of us at birth is the result of our past life. Our birth in this life is determined by the good and bad thoughts, words and deeds of a previous birth. This doctrine of samsara or rebirth is also called the theory of reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul and is a basic tenet of Hinduism. The Upanishads compare the passage of the soul to a caterpillar which climbs a blade of grass, leaves it and jumps on to a new one. Just as a man changes worn-out garments and wears new ones, so does the soul cast away one body and take on another.

However, we do not carry the burden of our previous lives in our consciousness, though we do in our sub-conscious minds. The birth of a musical genius in an unmusical family, or of great scholars and artistes whose education and environment do not explain their achievements, are a few evidences of the spill-over from previous births.

There are many such cases. One worth mentioning is of a young man who was a waster who could not even complete school. Suddenly one morning he was transformed into an erudite and knowledgeable mystic, and became a Sanyasi. His refined manners, wisdom and knowledge of the scriptures (without study or training) acquired overnight as it were, had no connection with his earlier life. It was as if, all of a sudden, some door in his inner being had been unlocked from a previous birth and illuminated his mind.

Karma

One of the basic beliefs of Hinduism is the law of Karma or Action, the law of cause and effect. It is explained by the saying, 'As we sow, so shall we reap.' A farmer cannot leave his fields fallow and expect a crop of wheat. Nor can he sow wheat and expect a field of rice. Similarly every good thought, word or deed begets a similar reaction which affects our next lives and every unkind thought, harsh word and evil deed comes back to harm us in this life or the next.

Often Indians are called fatalists on the grounds that it is the law of Karma that makes us accept Fate and not fight misfortune. This is not so as Karma is far from being a fatalistic doctrine.

There are three stages of Karma. The only Karma that is beyond our control is Prarabdha Karma. According to this, the body or tenement the soul chooses to be born in is not under human control. The choice of parents, the environment of the home, and the physical condition of the new-born are the result of the sum total of favorable and unfavorable acts performed in a previous life. These cannot be changed. They are predetermined by the quality of the previous life. So also the time of death. Our scriptures aver that even a thousand spears will not kill you if your time on earth is not yet over, but when your end is near, even a blade of kusa grass could bring about your end. When each one of us has finished enjoying the good and paying for the bad deeds of the previous life, the time on earth is over. The soul leaves this body and goes into another to work out its destiny afresh, arising out of the good and bad deeds of this life.

The second stage is that of Samchita Karma which is the accumulated Karma of all our previous births which gives us our characteristics, tendencies, aptitudes and interests. This is why two children born of the same parents and given the same environment, for example, turn out to be very different in their capabilities and characteristics.

Samchita Karma is, however, changeable. With wisdom a man can change himself, improve his habits and get rid of evil thoughts and desires. Similarly one born with good characteristics could descend to a life of evil, setting aside his naturally good inclinations. Samchita Karma is therefore alterable by Man himself.

The third, Agami Karma, consists of the actions in our present life which determine our future in the later years of this life and in the next. It is entirely within our hands and our own free will. Man cannot change his past or birth, but he can mould his future. By evil thoughts, words or deeds, we mar our days to come. By purity of thought, compassionate words and deeds, righteous action without thought of the fruits thereof, we pave the way for a better life for all our tomorrows in this birth and the next.

Therefore Karma is not a fatalistic doctrine. It is a logical theory which explains differences in our births and temperaments and guides us in molding our future lives.

Writer Name:- Shakunthala Jagannathan

Sons of Shiva

November 19, 2013, 11:57 pm

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Terror of Taraka 

Every cosmic event begins with the triumph of demons and ends with the triumph of gods. Neither remains undefeated forever.

Prajapati Kashyapa, patriarch of the celestial race fathered both the devas and the asuras.

Kashyapa made the devas, the gods of light. The asuras were to be the demons of darkness. By granting them mutually antagonistic roles he ensured their eternal enmity. The gods and demons stood on opposite poles of the cosmos. Everything the gods did, the demons opposed. The gods fought for the day; the demons for the night. The gods favored summer; the demons favored winter. The gods helped the moon to wax; the demons caused it to wane. These eternal squabbles, these cosmic wars, with alternating triumphs and tragedies, provided the dynamism on which the cosmos sustained itself.

Often the gods, strengthened by sacrifices and offerings, the yagnas, managed to fight the demons on their own. But there were times when reinforcements had to be called for. Such a time arose when Taraka became commander of the asuras. The devas found it near impossible to defeat him. They went to Brahma for help.

"He can only be killed by a seven day old child," revealed Brahma, creator of life, master of destiny.

"Where will we find such a powerful infant capable of leading the gods?" they asked.

"With Shiva,' of course" replied Vishnu. 

Shiva's Divine Spark 

Shiva and Parvati had isolated themselves in their cave, away from all interruptions. Entry was forbidden even to the gods.

So the devas stood outside and, in a very loud voice, began discussing the chaos caused by the demons, especially Taraka. They began to howl and cry, lamenting their inability to deal with this terrible situation. Disturbed by the din and feeling sorry for the gods, the cosmic couple stepped out of their cave. "How can I help you?" Shiva asked.

"Give us a child capable of fighting demons on the seventh day of his life," the gods begged.

Shiva agreed. "Take the essence of my austerities. From it will rise my son, the greatest warlord in the cosmos."

Shiva cast his spiritual energies into a fire. But Agni, the fire-god, could not bear its radiance for long. He cast it into the river Ganga, causing its cool waters to boil. The terrible heat thus generated set fire to the reeds on the river banks. In that great blaze, Shiva's energy transformed into a radiant child, a boy with six heads and twelve arms.

When the fire died out, six wandering nymphs called the Krittikas, found the baby beneath the embers and smoldering ash, within the petals of a splendid lotus. They nursed him and took him to Shiva.

The sight of this extraordinary child filled the gods with awe. He was given many names in keeping with his status Skanda, the energetic emission; Mahasena, the great leader; Guha, the mysterious one; Shanmukha, the six faced boy; Pavaki, son of fire; Gangeya, son of Ganga; Sarabhu, born amidst reeds; Kumar, the boy and Kartik, son of the Krittika maidens. Shiva gave him a powerful lance, vel, as a weapon; a rooster for his insignia; a peacock for his vehicle, his vahana. He became Velan, the lance-bearer.

On the seventh day of his life the child let out a shrill war-cry and challenged the demons to a fight. It was a splendid battle, one that shook the foundations of the cosmos. Kartik killed not only the demon Taraka but also the demons Banukopan, Soorpadam and Simukha. The gods rejoiced and thanked Shiva for his son. 

Birth of Ganapati 

Parvati wanted a child, someone to keep her company when she was alone in Kailas, when Shiva chose to meditate in isolation. Mount Kailas, without its lord, was a desolate place: all snow and stones, filled with an oppressive silence.

Shiva refused to be burdened with a family. In her loneliness, Parvati decided to produce a child on her own. She was after all the mother-goddess!

The next time Shiva disappeared into the deodar forest seeking a respite from married life, Parvati went to lake Manasarovar. There she scrubbed her body till it was red. She collected the dirt and dead skin, mixed it with sandal paste and clay and molded out of it a doll, a cute little boy. Parvati fell in love with her creation and quickly breathed life into it.

She called him Vinayaka, the leader, and spent days talking and playing with him. In his company she forgot all about Shiva. Days passed.

One day, Parvati told Vinayaka, "I don't wish to be disturbed. Don't let anyone into my cave."

"I won't," he promised.

Sometime later, having finished his long penance, Shiva returned to Kailas. He found that the entrance to his cave Was blocked by a boy, one he had never seen before.

"Stop!" said the boy as Shiva approached the cave, "You cannot enter this cave." Shiva ignored the boy and tried to walk past him. "Stop! I say," the boy snarled, pointing his lance at Shiva, "One more step and I will have to use force."

"Listen boy, don't you know who I am?" said Shiva.

"No, I don't. You may be Brahma himself, but I will not let you enter the cave."

"How dare you talk to me in that tone?" said Shiva, his temper rising, "Step aside before I am forced to hit you." Shiva tried to push the boy aside and enter the cave by force, only to have a lance pushed against his throat.

Shiva lost his temper. He raised his trident, the dreaded trishula and hurled it at the boy. The sharp blades slit Vinayaka's neck. He dropped dead, blood gushing out of his headless body.

Disturbed by the commotion outside, Parvati rushed out of the cave. The sight of Vinayaka's severed head and lifeless body horrified her.

She fell to the ground, beating her breasts, shedding tears of blood. "My son, my son," she cried clutching the mutilated head against her bosom. Inconsolable, she pulled her hair and smeared her body with dirt.

Shiva realizing the seriousness of the situation, regretted his anger, his lack of restraint. To make amends he decided to resurrect the boy. Otherwise, Parvati would never forgive him.

Shiva told his ganas, "Get me the head of the first living creature you encounter on leaving Kailas."

They did as they were told. They came across a mighty one-tusked elephant and brought its head to Shiva. Shiva placed it on the headless corpse and brought the boy back to life.

Vinayaka, with a body molded by Parvati and a head given by Shiva, came to be known as Ganapati, leader of the ganas. He was given a mouse to serve as his mount. He became guardian of the threshold, the cosmic doorkeeper.

He is the remover of all obstacles, Vighneshvara. Without appeasing him with prayers, no work can be done, no task can be completed, no project will be successful. He keeps watch over every hurdle. 

Andhaka, the Blind Son of Shiva 

Once Parvati covered Shiva's eyes in a spirit of play. Her hands started to perspire, for Shiva's eyes contained the energy of the sun. From Shiva's heat and Parvati's sweat arose an emaciated blind boy.

"He is our son," said Shiva. Parvati nursed him until he had developed a powerful sixth sense that made up for his blindness.

Shiva gave his blind son to the demon-king Hiranyaksha, his beloved devotee, who had no children of his own. Under Hiranyaksha's care, the child grew up to be a powerful warrior, dreaded even by the gods. He was called Andhaka, the blind-demon.

One day, Andhaka heard of Parvati, the most beautiful woman on earth. The bards described her beauty with so many superlatives that he decided to make her his queen.

Andhaka entered Kailas the moment he learnt that Shiva and his ganas had left for the lake Manasarovar. Parvati was all alone.

On seeing Andhaka, she sensed his unholy intentions. She could have easily destroyed him but her maternal instincts overruled her sense of outrage.

She prayed to Vishnu for help. The cosmic saviour heard her prayers and arrived on Kailas in the form of a hundred thousand damsels, the Mohinis, each one more ravishing than the other. Which one of them was Parvati wondered Andhaka.

Hours went by. Andhaka wandered amongst the beautiful women, totally confused and disoriented.

When Shiva returned, he divined what was happening. Infuriated, he impaled Andhaka with his trident; then, raising him up like a flag, he exposed the blind-demon to the elements. There he remained for a hundred thousand years, paying the price for his base intentions.

Andhaka lost his divine sight. He became emaciated and weak, with just enough strength to apologise to his mother and sing praises of his father.

Shiva, who never bore a grudge for long, was moved by his son's repentance. "I forgive you, Andhaka. You were born in darkness, hence you had a dark personality. But now you are enlightened. You shall now live amongst my ganas, taking your rightful place as my son."

Andhaka, the demon of darkness, became an enlightened follower of Shiva. The lord's grace removed the shadow of lust that had muddled his good sense. 

Ganapati's Marriage 

Parvati could not decide which one of her sons should be married off first: Kartik or Ganesha. Shiva proposed a competition. "Let us celebrate the marriage of the one who returns first after going all round the world," he said.

As soon as the race was announced, Kartik leapt on his peacock and rushed off to circumambulate the cosmos. It was a long journey, but Kartik's determination saw him through.

Ganesha did not bother to move from his seat. When he saw Kartik returning to Kailas he quickly went around his parents.

"I won," declared Kartik.

"No, I did. I went round the world before you did," said Ganesha.

"What do you mean: you went round? You did not take a step out of Kailas! It was I who went round the world on my peacock."

"You went around your world the great cosmos. I went around my world my parents. Since I finished first, I have won."

Parvati said, "You both have won in your own way: Kartik is the victor in a tangible sense. But in a more subtle, a more intellectual sense, Ganesha emerges as the victor."

Parvati was proud of her sons, the strong Kartik and the wise Ganesha. She declared, "He who worships Kartik will gain strength; he who worships Ganesha will gain wisdom. You two are the two aspects of my power, shakti."

But in the matter of marriage, Shiva decided that Ganesha should get married first. "I think his wit deserves to be rewarded."

Kartik was furious. 

Kartik Leaves Kailas 

Shiva let Ganesha marry first despite Kartik's valid arguments and opposition. The two daughters of the prajapati Vishvaroopa, Siddhi and Buddhi, goddesses of success and intelligence, became Ganesha's consorts, reinforcing his position as lord of wit, wisdom and victory.

The event upset Kartik terribly. He felt that his parents did not value him, his qualities or his feelings. But few were willing to listen to him. Everybody was enjoying themselves at Ganesha’s wedding.

Kartik became convinced that he was not wanted. So he left Kailas and moved southwards. When the Krauncha hills tried to block his path, he simply hurled his lance and carved a path right through them.

Shiva tried to make peace with his son but Kartik refused to see him, or speak to him. He just wanted to be left alone. 

Kartik's Marriage 

Upset by his parent's apparent favoritism, Kartik moved to the southern hills and lived amongst the tribes there. The locals called him Murugan, the divine youth. He protected them from demons and monsters that plagued the valleys and forest paths. But all the while he remained lonely and miserable.

 Indra, king of the devas, saw the plight of this great warlord. He decided to give him a wife, his own daughter Devayani, also known as Sena. It was the least he could do for his mighty champion. They were married in the presence of the gods according to priestly rites.

Sometime later Kartik, while wandering in the dense jungles of the Tamil lands, came across Valli, a beautiful tribal girl. She stood in the middle of her father's millet field shooing away birds and beasts. Smitten by her beauty, Kartik asked for her hand in marriage. Valli agreed and the two got married by natural rites, inspired by love and in the presence of the elements. 

Agastya Moves South 

Shiva once gave a discourse on yoga. Every creature in the cosmos gods, demons, sages, sorcerers, kings, merchants, priests, slaves rushed to Kailas to hear him speak. As a result of this mass exodus to the northern mountains, the world started to tilt on one side.

"Wisdom, civilization, knowledge, skill, all this has come north; there is nothing left in the south. The balance of the cosmos is totally lost," exclaimed Brahma.

Shiva realised the seriousness of the situation. He turned to Agastya, his wisest disciple and said, "Go to the south. Take with you all that I have taught you: the skill of communication, the secrets of astronomy and medicine; the art of theatre and music; the science of agriculture and animal herding; the fundamentals of philosophy; the knowledge of warfare; sacred lore; the essentials of sacrifice. Take it all. Help the cosmos regain its balance."

"As you wish," said Agastya, "But give me something that will remind me of the Kailas hills." Shiva gave him two great hills to carry to the south. The demon Ettumba offered to carry them on a ‘kavadi : he tied each of the hills to the ends of a strong pole which he slung over his shoulder and moved to the south.

At Palani, in Tamil Nadu, Ettumba placed the hills on the ground and went to a river nearby to refresh himself. When he returned he found that he could not pick up the hills again. It was as if someone was holding them back.

He looked around and found a beautiful young boy seated on one of the hills. "Get off the hill, boy," growled Ettumba. But the boy refused. "If you don't, I'll hit you." The boy still refused to budge. Ettumba lost his temper and raised his arm to strike the boy, only to be kicked into submission.

When Agastya arrived on the scene, he instantly knew that this was no ordinary child. "Who are you?" he asked. "I am Kartik, son of Shiva," replied the boy. "These hills remind me of Kailas, my home in the north that I abandoned long ago. I would like to stay here." Agastya let him.

Since then Kartik is said to reside atop the hills of Palani while Agastya resides on the plains. With the two representatives of Shiva in the south, there was no need for anybody to travel all the way to Kailas in the north. The balance of the cosmos was restored. It is said, each year Shiva and Parvati visit their son at his abode in the south, having reconciled their differences. 

Celibate Sons of Shiva 

There is considerable confusion about the marriage of Ganesha and Kartik in Jambudvipa, the rose-apple continent of India.

In the north, Kartik is considered to be the elder son of Shiva and Parvati, born before Ganesha. In the south,

Ganesha is described as the elder brother; Kartik is the younger one.

In the north, Kartik is said to be unmarried because he saw his mother in all women. In the south, it is Ganesha who is believed to be the Brahmachari, the son who didn't marry because he found no woman as wonderful as his mother.

In North India, Kartik is described as a celibate warlord, the passionate commander of the gods who cheers men into battle and leads them to a glorious death. In some places where this quality is admired, women worship Kartik, seeking a virile husband like him. But in most places his warlike spirit is frowned upon and women, except a few widows, don't dare worship him. To them he is the god of men, lord of their martial brotherhood.

In the south, flanked by his two wives, Kartik is always seen as the personification of virility and valor. His beauty is legendary. His wives, Sena and Valli, symbolize his army and his weapons. His two marriages thus reinforce his position as the champion of the gods, the god of brawn, the mighty-god.

In the north, Siddhi and Buddhi are the consorts of Ganesha. They are the goddesses of accomplishment and intelligence. This significant alliance makes Ganesha the god of brains, the wise-god.

The two sons of Shiva and Parvati represent two aspects of power, shakti. Perhaps neither is superior nor elder to the other, for no man can be truly powerful unless he has a well balanced measure of strength and wisdom.

Writer Name:- Devdutt Pattanaik

Exploits of Shiva

November 25, 2013, 10:18 pm

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Churning of the World Poison

The gods once decided to churn out amrita from the primeval waters. Amrita is celestial nectar, containing the essence of all life. Anyone who drinks it becomes Immortal, living as long the cosmos itself. The gods wanted it desperately.

The waters stretched into infinity; to churn it, the gods erected a fabulous machine. Its base was Akupara, the divine turtle. On its back was placed Mount Mandara, the celestial axis which was used as the churning staff around which Sesha, the serpent of eternity, coiled itself.

The Adityas and Daityas, gods of light and darkness, pulled the serpent's tail and neck and spun the churning staff, first one way, then the other. As a result, the waters began to twist and twirl, slowly at first but then faster and faster. Foam gathered at the base of the mountain, and the waters began to curdle.

The gods checked the waters for the first signs of amrita. But to their dismay what first appeared on the froth-laden surface was dark and sticky, a viscid scum emitting caustic fumes; it was the dreaded poison: halahal! The poison began to spread all around, contaminating the waters and polluting the air. Sesha began to retch; Akupara lost control of his bowels. All the gods became sick, too weak even to cry for help; the very existence of the cosmos was at stake.

Just then Shiva appeared on the scene. He scooped up the lethal fluid and drank it as if it were sweet wine.

Parvati, fearing for Shiva, caught hold of his neck and stopped the poison from entering his body. The poison remained within Shiva's throat. It seeped into the skin of his neck, turning it blue.

Shiva's actions had saved the cosmos. With the poison gone, the air became fresh and the ocean became clear. The gods recovered their strength and resumed the churning.

When the amrita finally appeared, the gods drank it greedily. Then they remembered the terrible halahal. It dawned on them how their desire for eternal life had very nearly destroyed the cosmos.

They thanked Shiva for his timely help. To commemorate this great event, Vishnu gave Shiva a new name: Neelakantha, he-who-has-a-blue-neck.

The Third Eye

Once, Parvati in the spirit of play covered Shiva's eyes with her hands. The moment she did this, the whole world was plunged in darkness. Shiva's eyes contained the power of the sun. They had been shut out by Parvati.

"Save us!" cried the gods, the demons, the humans. Without the sun, the cosmos was doomed.

So Shiva opened his third eye, and through it released his energies.

The sun shone bright once more.

Prayers of gratitude were offered across the cosmos to the three-eyed god, Trilochan Mahadev.

Descent of the Ganges

Bhagirath, prince of the Ikshavaku clan, came across a heap of ash. From it arose the lamentations of 60,000 youths. Their mournful sobs disturbed the gentle prince. "Who are these people?" he asked his grandfather, the wise Anshuman.

Anshuman told him the tragic tale of Sagar's 60,000 sons. "Long ago my grandfather, king Sagar, ruled this land. Envious of his growing power, Indra, king of the heavens, stole his horse. My uncles found it in the hermitage of the sage Kapila. They accused the hermit of theft, just as lndra hoped they would. Outraged by this accusation, Kapila conjured up his magical powers and burnt my uncles to death. As they were killed before their time, their souls were trapped in the twilight zone between life and after life."

"Is there any hope for them at all?" asked Bhagirath.

"Yes, but an impossible one. If their ashes can be cast in the Ganga, the heavenly river, they can move on to their next life. But Indra will not let us ascend into the heavens and Ganga will never come down to earth. So our ancestors are doomed to suffer for eternity."

"Not if I can help it. I will make Ganga come down," swore Bhagirath

Bhagirath walked out of his palace and became an ascetic. He tried to appease the gods with the practice of terrible austerities. His tapas, which included a hundred years of starvation and abstinence, forced Indra to let Ganga descend from the heavens.

When Ganga heard about this she laughed contemptuously. "My fall from the heavens will break the very foundations of earth," she said, "The cities, the jungles, even the hills will be washed away by the force of my waters."

Disturbed by Ganga's pride, Brahma told Bhagirath to approach Shiva. "He is the great Kapardin-Jatadhari, bearer-of-a-dense-coiffure. With his locks, matted with banyan juice, he will capture this great river just as a cowherd ropes in an errant bull."

Bhagirath prayed to Shiva. "Can you help, great lord?"

Shiva said, "Let the vain Ganga leap from the heavens. I will stem her flow, and crush her pride."

Shiva stood on Mount Mandara, the cosmic axis, arms akimbo. He looked towards the heavens, ready to capture its river. Everybody gathered round him to witness the spectacle: gods, demons, humans, birds and beasts.

Ganga dived from her celestial abode with the force of a hundred thousand ocean currents. The sound was deafening. It seemed that Ganga planned to wash away the whole earth. The world trembled in anticipation . . .

Ganga fell right on top of Shiva's head. She hoped to split his skull with her fall. Instead she found herself getting entangled in his thick hair. The matted curls and dense knots trapped her waters, firmly restraining her flow. Chained by Shiva's tresses, the river-shrew Ganga finally emerged out of Shiva's topknot, not as a gush but as a mere trickle that gently moved towards the sea, fertilizing the earth on its way.

Bhagirath cast the ashes of his ancestors in the heavenly river. They arose as spirits and before moving on to their next life they gave Shiva the suitable name of Gangadhar, he-who-holds-the-mighty-Ganges.

Ganga became Shiva's second wife.

Even today people cast the ashes of their ancestors in the Ganga in the hope of making a safe journey into the next life.

A Blade of Grass

The gods once sat before Brahma boasting of their prowess. "I can burn the ocean with my flames," said Agni, the fire-god. "I can blow away the mountains with my gales," said Vayu, the wind-god. And Indra, king of the gods, wielder of the thunderbolt said, "I can crush all the demons with my weapon, the vajra."

Brahma was dismayed by the arrogance of his sons.

Suddenly there appeared on the scene a yaksha. He held a blade of grass in his hand. "Can any of you get rid of this blade of grass?" he asked. Agni spat fire; he hissed and crackled, but found to his astonishment that the grass remained unsigned. Vayu huffed and puffed, and generated a blizzard, but the blade of grass refused to budge. Indra swung his vajra and hurled his thunderbolt, but the blade of grass remained as it was. 54 "What is meaning of this?" asked the gods.

‘"It means that beyond every great power there is one greater," replied the yaksha.

'Who says so?"

"Shiva."

The yaksha disappeared and there was silence. Agni and Vayu, humbled by the event, hung their heads in shame. But Indra was not amused. "Who does this Shiva think he is?" Indra grabbed his vajra and moved to Kailas to teach Shiva a lesson.

He saw before him a naked ascetic, an avadhut. "Where is Shiva?" asked Indra.

"I am he," replied the ascetic calmly.

"You have the impertinence to teach me, the king of the gods, a lesson."

Shiva didn't reply.

His silence enraged Indra. He raised his vajra to strike him. Shiva opened his third eye. Brahma realised what was about to happen. "Stop!" he cried, begging Shiva not to harm Indra. "Don't kill Indra. He is leader of the gods; without him the balance of the cosmos will be lost."

So Shiva cast his fire into the ocean.

"Indra will soon meet his match and his pride will be crushed, said Shiva. He will realise that bragging doesn't win battles."

Jalandhara The Demon From the Sea

Shiva's fire scorched the waters of the ocean. From the steam arose a demon called Jalandhara.

No sooner was he born than he became leader of the demons. He led them in battle against the gods and won a great victory. Indra was totally humiliated, beaten and bruised into submission and driven out of the heavens. He was deprived of his throne, his palace, his wealth, his power and his vajra was snatched away.

Indra went to Brahma for help. "How can I defeat Jalandhara?" he asked.

"You can't. Only Shiva can, "replied the wise creator.

Indra remembered and regretted the arrogance he had displayed not long ago. "Will Shiva help someone who insulted him?" he wondered.

"Shiva never bears a grudge."

Jalandhara, like Indra before him, declared, "I am the greatest warrior of the world."

"No, you are not. Not until you defeat Shiva," said Indra.

"Who is this Shiva?" asked Jalandhara.

"A hermit."

Jalandhara laughed and rushed to Kailas to fight Shiva. Shiva smiled and marked out a circle on the ground with his big toe. "I will fight only if you can carry this piece of earth on your head."

"Yes! I can," boasted Jalandhara. He ripped out that ground marked by Shiva and placed it on his head. "See, I can do it."

Suddenly the circular piece of earth on Jalandhara's head began to whir like a discus and grow in size. Before he could say another word it became so big and spun so violently that it cracked his skull and broke his spine.

As Jalandhara gasped for his last breath he heard Shiva say, "I carry the moon on my head, and you cannot even carry a small piece of earth. Whatever made you think you are the strongest being in the cosmos?"

Bhasmaka's Touch

Shiva once consumed pots of bhang and lost his good sense to intoxicated dreams. In that state he gave a demon called Bhasmaka the power to kill any creature by his mere touch.

The demon decided to test this power on Shiva himself. He moved his hands menacingly towards Shiva.

Shiva, shaken out of his drunken state, got up and ran. The whole cosmos witnessed the spectacle: Shiva being chased by Bhasmaka. They would have laughed had they not realised the seriousness of the situation: Shiva's destruction would lead to cosmic annihilation.

Shiva rushed to Vishnu. "Help me!" he cried.

"I will," promised the cosmic saviour. Taking the form of the ravishing damsel, Mohini, Vishnu appeared before Bhasmaka. Looking at her, the demon forgot about Shiva. "May I embrace you?" he asked.

Mohini looked into his eyes and said, "Only if you dance with me."

Mohini started to dance and Bhasmaka imitated all her movements.

When she put her left foot forward, he did the same. Then she placed her right hand on her navel, he did the same. Finally when she placed her hands on top of her head, he did the same. With that Bhasmaka's own body burst into flames.

Vishnu had saved Shiva's life; for that Shiva was most grateful.

Science of Rejuvenation

Shukra practised terrible austerities to learn the science of immortality.

"There is no such science. All that is born must die," said Shiva.

"Then teach me the science of rejuvenation, Sanjivani Vidya, that can cure any disease and treat any wound."

Shiva, master of all herbs, lord of every medicine, taught the science to Shukra.

Shukra became the preceptor of the demons. Using his knowledge he was able to revive and restore to health all those who were wounded in battle against the gods. Consequently, the demons never suffered any casualties in war.

Brahma complained to Shiva, "Shukra disturbs the cosmic balance by reviving demons who have fallen in celestial battles. Do something. Stop him! Kill him!"

"I will stop him, there is no need to kill him," said Shiva.

The next time the gods and demons fought, a strange creature appeared on the horizon. It was an ogress called Kritya, a Shiva-gana. She sucked Shukra into her body. There he remained in an unborn state, unable to use his magic in favour of the demons. As a result, the battle of the gods and demons was fought fairly.

Brahma looked at Shukra locked in Kritya's womb and smiled at Shiva's ingenuity . . . only Mahakala could deprive a creature of life without actually killing him!

Three Flying Cities

Three demons once built three flying cities, tripura. On their flying cities the demons went everywhere, with their armies and their families; no mountain was too high, no ocean was too vast. Like falcons they swooped down upon cities to rape, plunder and terrorise the cosmos. They seemed unstoppable.

"They must be destroyed," said the gods.

"But how?" wondered Indra.

"Only with a single arrow!" informed Brahma, repository of all knowledge.

"But that is impossible," they complained, "No hunter can ever shoot two birds with a single arrow, let alone three flying cities?"

"It is not impossible if one has the right archer, wielding the right bow and arrow, riding the right chariot," said Vishnu. Everybody knew he was talking about Shiva, who is also known as Sharva, the cosmic archer.

"He can do it," they all agreed.

"But only if the three cities align themselves in a straight path," reminded Indra.

"Don't worry," said Vishnu reassuringly, "I have charted the course of the three cities and I know that very soon they will fall in a single line, but only for a moment. If at that exact moment, Shiva shoots the arrow, they will surely be destroyed."

"If anyone can do it, he can," said Brahma.

The gods rejoiced and got to work instantly.

First they used all their energies to assemble an appropriate war chariot: the earth itself, with the sun and moon serving as its wheels. Brahma was its charioteer and the stars its horses.

They then made the bow: Meru, king of the mountains, served as the shaft while Vasuki, king of the serpents, became the string. Its twang resounded across the cosmos.

"But we don't have a suitable arrow," said the gods.

"Yes, we do," said Vishnu who turned himself into a fiery missile, a blazing shastra.

Shiva took the form of Ugra, the fierce warlord and mounted the cosmic chariot. He grabbed the celestial bow and chased the three cities across the galaxies. He followed them up into the bright firmament and down into the murky waters of the nether world. He waited for the moment when the three flying cities were aligned. And when it happened, after a thousand years of chase, Shiva shot the lethal dart the Vishnu-shastra.

The missile ripped through the foundations of the three flying cities. Instantly they burst into flames and came tumbling down. The cries of the demons, their women and children, rent the air. All were killed. The remains of the cities turned into cosmic debris: comets, asteroids and meteors. After the massacre, Shiva came to be known as Tripurantaka, destroyer of the three cities.

The gods cheered Shiva's feat. But he did not smile. "I cannot celebrate the death of any creature, howsoever corrupt." Shiva's face was stern; tears ran down his cheeks. The painful cries of the demons echoed in his ears.

"Know this," Shiva said to all those who gathered around him, "A day will come when the whole cosmos, every atom within it, will be corrupt. At that time I shall wield my bow once again and destroy the three worlds." And to remind everyone of this fearsome premonition, he marked out on his forehead three lines, horizontal as a corpse, using the charred remains of the three flying cities.

Writer Name:-Devdutt Pattanaik

Love In Separation (Viyoga)

November 26, 2013, 12:25 am

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According to the situation of lovers, love is of two kinds: love in separation (Viyoga), and love in union (Samyoga). Viyoga is of three varieties: purva raga, the beginning of love, mana, the separation of lovers out of false pride and obstinacy, and pravasa, the separation of lovers caused by the departure of the lover for foreign lands.

In Kangra painting, love awakens at first sight. The meeting at the village well is an occasion for falling in love. The tired and thirsty prince who is out on shikar comes to the village well and asks the pretty girl for a draught of water. As he drinks the water with cupped hands he lifts his eyes for a moment look at the face of the girl. Their eyes meet and the inevitable happens.

A closely related theme is that of the lover looking at his beloved who is unaware of his presence. Thus, Krishna is shown watching Radha who is cooking in the kitchen or is having her hair combed by a maid in the courtyard of her home. A delightful painting from Guler show Radha bathing, while Krishna watches from a balcony overlooking the bathing platform. Radha is on a chauki; one of her attendants curtains her off with a green sheet, while another, with her out-stretched veil. Her flowing jet-black hair is in charming contrast with the golden complexion of her body.

Vidyapati describes her charms thus:

Ah, Madhava! I saw the fair one freely;

I suddenly beheld her as she bathed.

Her jet black hair poured over her breast,

As though a shaggy yak concealed a golden Manda.

Mana means coldness, obstinacy and pride; manini nayika is the "unwilling" lady who pays no attention to her lover, in spite of his prayers, entreaties, and messages of love.

She is shown in a Kanga painting as a girl who has escaped from her husband's arms, leaving him alone. Disappointed, he watches her from a balcony, while dark monsoon clouds sail in the sky. A pair of sarus cranes soar heavenward. The husband has sent a duenna to pacify the young lady who leans against a pillow with her back towards him. She is cajoling her with promises but the young lady does not relent.

The third phase of Viyoga is called pravasa. The desire for union springs from seeing the beloved one and hearing him. When the desire to meet him is not fulfilled, ten conditions result there from, namely longing (abhilasa), anxiety (chinta), reminiscence (smrti), the recalling of the qualities of the beloved one (guna-kathana), agitation (udvega), delirium (pratapa), sickness (vyadhi), stupor (jadata), derangement (unmada), and death (marana).

Paintings of lonely ladies, gazing at clouds and birds like the chakora, hansa or peacock and fanning themselves, are usually of women parted from their lovers. They have a special appeal to men accustomed to travel, for they remind them of their wives when they are away from home.

In the picture reproduced the heroine looks at the crows, one of which is cawing from the cornice. She asks it to fly away and bring news of her lover. If her lover returns home safely, she promises to have its beak gilded in reward for its services.

f my desire be fulfilled, on hearing the news you bring,

I shall make your beak to be plated with silver, I shall give you to eat a ladle of excellent churl mixed with sugar and ghi,

Let me behold Tula Ram while yet I live, but bring him not only for a single hour!

If you have seen my Lord a-coming home, then fly away from the cornice, thou crow!

The black buck, the peacock, the hansa, the chakora, and the snake are the symbols of the lover, and he is often represented by these in Kangra paintings. Love-sick heroines who seek relief from the pangs of separation are shown playing with these birds and animals. There is a charming painting of a virahini nayika in which a lady playing a small tambura under a willow tree is shown with a black buck. The sad music is reflected in her flowing drapery, the graceful curves of her body, and in the weeping branches of the willow tree. The picture is a fine example of Kangra art as practised at Guler, and is an excellent illustration of the longings of love (abhilasa). This popular Kangra motif is also to be seen in the murals which decorate the walls of the asrama at Damthal.

That the painting is a representation of virahini nayika is proved by a similar Guler painting on the back of which is an inscription which reads: "The young lady wearing a garland of flowers, admiring the blossoms, and playing the tara is longing to meet her lover."

In another painting from Guler (not reproduced here), the feeling of anxiety (chinta) in a woman separated from her husband is portrayed most vividly. A young lady with deep anxiety on her face is shown walking along the edge of a lotus-filled tank. The mango trees are laden with luscious fruit. It is a warm day, and the lady is fanning herself. Scattered among the cup-like leaves of the lotus plants are pale pink lotus buds of unearthly beauty. The agitation in the woman's heart is echoed by the leaves of the lotus which are all in utter confusion and disorder.

Love-sick ladies whose husbands are away are often shown in men's clothes, for this reminds them (simarana) of the joys of love in union. This state is shown in a very fine painting from Guler. The Raja is away on his travels and the Rani dresses herself for amusement in her husband's clothes which include a turban decorated with a peacock's feather. One of her companions shows her the mirror while another holds a thali containing vermilion. The Rani examines the vermilion mark which has been painted on her forehead by her companion. The empty bed in a pavilion suggests the absent lover. It is a warm summer night and the moonlight is depicted with great charm. Two maidservants enjoy the breeze from a fan. Such features as the pavilion, the minaret, the column-like cypresses alternating with mango-trees with rounded crowns, the fountain in the foreground, and the nose-rings with two pearls worn by the women all taken together suggest that it is the work of Gursahaya, a Guler artist.

Love-sick women also try to forget their sorrow by playing games. A painting of extraordinary delicacy shows two ladies playing chess. There is an expression of intense concentration on the players' faces. A duenna and two servant girls are looking on, and in the background is a grove of green-leaved trees. The transparent drapery, the soft colours, and the confident, graceful and rhythmical lines mark it out as a masterpiece.

In the palaces of the Rajput chiefs of Kangra, there were two types of gardens, the daylight gardens and the moonlit gardens. The centre of the former was occupied by a bathing tank with a fountain and at its side was a marble water pavilion. In the hot summer months of May and June, the daylight garden was the favourite resort of the Ranis and their maids, its cool waters providing relief from the burning heat of the day. Such a garden is shown in a Guler picture. The lady is sitting on the edge of the tank and her right foot is being washed by a maidservant. Her jet-black tresses fall over her shoulders and accentuate the soft curves of her body. The mood of the painting suggests the longing of love.

In a similar scene, probably by the same artist, a semi-draped Rani is shown seated on chauki. She cools her left hand in the spraying fountain. In the foreground are two women; one of them is playing happily on the tambura, and the other on a dholaka. A maid prepares the bed in the pavilion and covers it with flowers. In the background are the cypresses which are a marked characteristic of Guler paintings. The spout of the ewer, like the columns of cypress, suggests erotic feelings and the picture pulsates with the passionate longings of a woman awaiting her lover.

Depicts the love-lorn virahini during the rainy month of sawan, when married women eagerly await the return of their husbands. The dark clouds in the sky are lit up by flashes of lightning; and the snow-white sarus cranes contrast vividly with their sombre colour. The heroine watches the flight of the birds from a pavilion. In the background is a mountain lake with rushes growing on its banks among which slate blue sarus cranes, intensely devoted to each other, move about in pairs. A flock of cattle is grazing peacefully on a meadow close to the hamlet. The maidservants play on the tambura and the dholaka. The intense heat that precedes a thunder shower is skillfully suggested. A maidservant pours some cold drink into a cup while another makes some sandal paste. Another maidservant fans the nayika but her body, burning with the fever of love, knows no coolness. The modesty and love of a young Indian woman are gracefully portrayed in this painting.

The last stage of viyoga, vyadhi, is illustrated in a painting from Tira Sujanpur. Unable to bear the pangs of separation, the lady has fainted. A maidservant applies sandal paste on her bosom, while another fans her. In the adjoining balconies pairs of anxious women express concern over the lady's condition. In the background is a pastoral scene, where villagers warm their limbs in front of log-fires in the severe winter. The cold weather outside is in contrast with the hot fever of love that j racks the body of the lady separated from her lover.

Writer Name:- M.S. Randhawa

Two Folios from Manuscripts of the Rasikapriya of Kesavadas

November 26, 2013, 1:24 am

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The Rasikapriya was written in 1591 by Kesavadas, the court poet of the renowned Madhukar Shah (r. 1554-92) and his son, Prince Indrajit Shah, of Orchha in Madhya Pradesh. Composed, in highly cultivated Hindi, the poem categorizes the emotions and behavior of ideal lovers, especially the divine couple Radha and Krishna. The Rasikapriya became the stylistic standard for subsequent Hindi romantic literature, and illustrated copies were frequently commissioned by Rajput patrons throughout northern India. The two folios illustrated here were executed approximately half a century apart in different courts of Rajasthan and represent two of the finer sets ever created to illuminate this popular text.

A.) Although the specific correspondence of this Mewar Rasikapriya folio to the text is not possible due to the damaged condition of the inscription in the upper border, it is clear from the visual evidence that Radha (or a heroine) has ventured into the woods at night in order to meet with her lover. The woman is shown behind a plantain tree offering a delicacy, perhaps betel nut (pan), to the princely garbed Krishna. Another woman, presumably the heroine's handmaiden, also holds a treat and watches a village man milking a white cow. In the lower right corner is a forest cave in which sit a personified serpent couple, identifiable by a small snake protruding from each of their fore-heads, who also indulge in a savory snack. The passion of the lovers in their illicit tryst is evoked through the pairing of the human, serpentine, and avian couples; the painter Sahibdin's characteristic and suggestively erotic juxtaposition of a plantain tree and a cypress tree; and even the obvious fertility symbolism of the lactating cow and recipient vessel. The scene also includes the depiction of the Hindu god of creation, Brahma, who floats in the sky in his celestial chariot and holds the four sacred texts of the Vedas. Curiously, however, the manuscripts are labeled with the names of various Hindu deities rather than the proper names of the texts.

This illustration of the Rasikapriya is attributed to Sahibdin (fl. c. 1630-55), the leading artist under Jagat Singh I (r. 1628-52) of Mewar, and probably dates from about 1630-40. Consisting originally of a set of over no folios, Sahibdin's Rasikapriya was his third commission under the artistically minded Jagat Singh I. The set ushers in the middle phase of Sahibdin’s stylistic development, in which he experimented with pictorially expressing the poetic nuanees of the text through both innovative and conventional treatments of various motifs and compositions (Topsfield 1986).

B.)  According to the text on the reverse of the painting (see Appendix), this Bikaner Rasikapriya painting depicts a nayika (Radha) describing to her sakhi (maidservant) Krishna's attempts to seduce her. Radha is shown in the foreground seated against a bolster on a palace terrace while being entertained by a singer and a drummer. Krishna's lustful acts are presented in continuous narration in a wooded landscape beyond the palace. The pictorial rendition closely follows the literary one. As Radha says, "he touched my feet and took oaths" and "he pressed my head with his one thumb and at the same time with the other lifted my chin," thus is the lord of devotion portrayed.

The text also states that this Rasikapriya illustration was painted by Natthu, one of the premier artists working in the court atelier of Bikaner under Karan Singh (r. 1631-69) and Anup Singh (r. 1674-98). Natthu Umrani (fl. c. 1650-1700) was a cousin of the celebrated master painter of Bikaner, Ruknuddin (fl. c. 1665-1700), who in about 1674 began the work on the Rasikapriya set to which this folio originally belonged. This particular set is known as Set I as two additional Rasikapriya sets were produced in Bikaner during the eighteenth century. Following the initial work by Ruknuddin and Natthu, the Rasikapriya Set I was continued by Ruknuddin's son Ibrahim (fl. c. 1670-1700) and eventually completed in about 1714 by Ruknuddin's nephew Nure (fl. c. 1650-1715) (N. Krishna forthcoming). The text on the reverse also furnishes the date of 1694, apparently when the painting was recorded in an inventory taken at Bikaner Palace.

Stylistically these two Rasikapriya illustrations exhibit varying degrees of assimilation of the imperial and subimperial Mughal painting traditions. The Mewar folio (A), painted in brighter colors and lacking in depth, remains more faithful to the earlier pre-Mughal manuscript tradition and displays Mughal influence mainly in the composition and figural style. The facial modeling and more convincing spatial conventions in the Bikaner example (a) reveal its closer ties to the more naturalistic style of Mughal painting.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

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Folio from a Manuscript of the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva: Krishna and Radha in a Bower

November 26, 2013, 2:09 am

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The Gitagovinda is among the most frequently illustrated of all the devotional texts sacred to Krishna. Although the majority of extant Gitagovinda illustrations hail from northern India, this particular example may have been made at Aurangabad in the Deccan as it is stylistically similar to a manuscript of the Rasamanjari (Posy of delights) bound with an unillustrated nayaka-nayika manuscript by the same scribe that has a colophon stating that the portion of the text with the Rasamanjari paintings was made there in t6so (Doshi).

Despite this seemingly incontrovertible evidence of that manuscript's origin, the two manuscripts and a related Ragamala set have proved to be one of the most controversial and often discussed stylistic groups within Indian painting, with suggested dates ranging from 1630 to 1700 and attributions including Aurangabad, Mewar, Ghanerao, Bikaner, and Nagaur (see Doshi; Topsfield 199oa; and Vatsyayan 1978). The controversy lies in the fact that there are a number of Rajasthani, specifically Mewar, stylistic features present in the thirty-one paintings of the now-dispersed Gitagovinda manuscript. Although there are minor variations within it, the Rajasthani-style aspects generally include the figural types especially the moustache, long sideburns, and ornaments of Krishna as well as certain landscape, architectural, and compositional conventions.

These stylistic anomalies can, however, be explained by the cosmopolitan nature of the court culture of Aurangabad during the period when the paintings were executed (Leach 1986, p. 15o). During the many years of Mughal-Deccani warfare in the seventeenth century, large numbers of Mughal and Rajasthani troops were quartered in the city and region. These troops were led by high-ranking Rajasthani nobles, including Mohan Singh of Mewar, who commissioned the Rasamanjari and nayaka-nayika manuscripts of 165o. Since several illuminated manuscripts • in the same style were made at Mewar immediately following 165o, it seems likely that Rajasthani artists accompanying their nobles to the Deccan were exposed to and influenced by Deccani styles.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

Sohni Swims to Meet Her Lover Mahinwal

November 26, 2013, 2:22 am

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These two paintings illustrate the tragic tale of Sohni and Mahinwal, two young lovers who are said to have lived during the early seventeenth century in a small village in the Panjab, an area famous for its association with great lovers. Both paintings feature the key identifying motif of Sohni floating across a river on an overturned earthenware pot for her nightly tryst with her lover. The set imagery used to illustrate the romance usually includes Mahinwal tending his buffaloes on the far bank and his ascetic companion seated by the river's near edge, as in the Oudh example (A), but these features are curiously absent in the Mewar painting (a) where, uniquely, Mahinwal is represented as waiting for his nightly tryst in a small thatched pavilion decorated as an elegant bed chamber. The text above painting a conveys Sohni's apprehension about attempting the perilous river crossing. In painting A both Sohni and Mahinwal are portrayed with sheathed swords graced with golden hilts. Although not explained by any literary narrative, this feature is typical of most paintings of the lovers and may pictorially suggest their popular elevation to noble heroes in their ultimately futile struggle against rigid social mores.

According to the legend, Mahinwal, whose given name was Mirza Izzat Beg, was the son of a wealthy merchant-ruler in Turkestan who was returning home with a merchant caravan after traveling throughout northern India. After passing Lahore, the caravan stopped near the town of Gujrat, where Izzat Beg chanced upon a radiant young beauty tending her father's pottery shop. Her name was Sohni, meaning "beautiful." Izzat Beg was so overwhelmed by her loveliness that he abandoned the caravan to remain with Sohni, who soon came to reciprocate his ardor. Izzat Beg then managed to be hired by Sohni's father and was put to work tending the family's buffaloes across the river. Thus he acquired his more popular name, Mahinwal, meaning "buffalo herder."

Sohni and Mahinwal's clandestine affair continued until it was discovered by her mother and Mahinwal was ordered to never again see Sohni, who was quickly married to another potter's son and sent to her husband's family home. The distraught Mahinwal went to live with an ascetic near the river, but after accidentally meeting one day, the couple decided to resume their illicit relationship. Every night thereafter Sohni swam across the river using a large baked earthenware pot as a float. But Sohni's sister-in-law soon discovered the lovers and switched an unfired pot for the one used by Sohni to cross the river. That night a fierce storm hit, yet Sohni ignored the danger and jumped into the raging river with the deadly pot. The pot dissolved in midstream and Mahinwal leapt into the river to save his beloved, but the current was too strong and the lovers sank into legend.

Contrary to the illustrations of literary romantic themes and the loves of Krishna, which are all of Hindu cultural origin, paintings depicting Sohni and Mahinwal are based on a supposedly historical incident and are primarily associated with various Muslim and Sikh literary traditions that narrate the tragic fates bf hapless lovers. These often repeated love stories, especially those from the Panjab, typically involve couples whose affairs of the heart generated universal appeal and ennobled them with a poetic and courtly stature. Sohni's act is analogous to that of the heroine who braves the perils of the forest on a stormy night to be with her lover, and the same emotional charge of heedless desire must be understood as underlying the legend and its representations.

The romance of Sohni and Mahinwal was popular at most of the major courts across northern India, with the majority of the tale's illustrations dating from the third quarter of the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century some illustrations of Sohni and Mahinwal achieved a new level of cultural relevance with the sudden trans-formation of Mahinwal and his associated imagery into that of Krishna. This socio-logical and artistic phenomenon demonstrates Krishna's immense appeal and is another example of his cult's assimilation of diverse religious and romantic legends.

 

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

Krishna Gathering Lotus Blossoms for Radha

November 26, 2013, 2:54 am

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Among the most distinctive and appealing representations of divine couple Radha and Krishna are those painted at Kishangarh in Rajasthan during the eighteenth century. The often unusually large portraits and narrative scenes are graced with a unique facial and figural style, which is immediately striking in this moonlit painting of Krishna gathering lotus blossoms for Radha, who is seated on a lake-edge terrace. The characteristic almond-shaped, upturned eyes; long, pointed noses; and graceful, elongated figures are the hallmark of Kishangarh painting. This lyrical, "sloe-eyed" portrait style was probably devised by Nihal Chand (c. 1715-8o), the royal atelier's master artist, and may have originally been intended for portraits of Radha and Krishna exclusively. Attendant figures in Kishangarh paintings also exhibit the distinctive facial features, but sometimes in a slightly less stylized manner, as is the case here.

This representation of Krishna is also notable in that it shows his long locks of hair flowing down his shoulders and into the water. One of Krishna's epithets is Kesava, "long-haired," but the rationale for the name is usually not so readily apparent as most portraits of the deity show his hair covered by a crown or turban.

Scenes of Krishna gathering lotuses for Radha are thought to illustrate a poem by fir Savant Singh (see Randhawa & Galbraith, pp. 108-9, pl. 23). Under the nom de plume of Nagari Das, he composed a number of devotional works, including the Manoratha Manjari (1723), Rasika Ratnavali (1725), Bihari Chandrika 0730, and Braj Sar (1742). Savant Singh's beloved courtesan, Bani Thani, was also a poet and, as did her lover, wrote under a pseudonym: Raskia Bihari.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

Krishna and Radha Cruising on Lake Gundalao in a Royal Barge

November 26, 2013, 9:20 pm

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Kishangarh painting, in addition to its distinctive facial style, is also renowned for its spectacular sunsets and panoramic landscapes. Epitomizing that tradition, this painting features a brilliant, fiery sunset in dramatic counterpoint to its rolling green hills, white palaces, and the prominent Lake Gundalao. The grand vistas shown in Kishangarh paintings must, however, be viewed with a deeper symbolic meaning than mere landscape. For, just as Krishna and Radha roamed the fields and forests of Brindavan, so too did Savant Singh and Bani Thani in their devotional emulation of the divine couple. In place of the rural terrain of Brindavan, the Kishangarh artists depicted the palaces and pleasure gardens of their own court as a setting for the lovers.

Although the ostensible subject of most Kishangarh paintings is the romance of Radha and Krishna, on another level of interpretation the paintings can be seen as allegories for the love of Savant Singh and Bani Thani, as well as symbolic equations of the divine and secular lovers. Although never explicitly expressed, this metaphorical identification is intimated by the presence of Savant Singh/ Nagari Das's poetry on the back of a number of the works.

Radha and Krishna are portrayed twice in this painting: once surrounded by female attendants in the prominent royal barge and again at the bottom, alone in a forest grove. This scene of continuous narration may illustrate a poem by Savant Singh that describes the ideal couple as first boating on the Jamuna River in Brindavan and subsequently trysting in a forest glen.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

Krishna and Radha Enjoying a Feast and Fireworks

November 26, 2013, 10:27 pm

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This painting presents Krishna and Radha in a Mughal-style palace pavilion enjoying a feast and night fireworks. In addition to the sparklers in the foreground, the numerous flames along the roofline and those outlining the five palaces rising out of the lake in the background suggest that the scene is taking place during the popular Dipwali Festival of Lights. A song verse inscribed on the back of the painting describes the feast and the participants, but fails to mention the reason for the festivities (see Appendix).

The chronology of Kishangarh painting is controversial, but it is generally considered to have begun by about 1700 with an emphasis on secular portraits. The production of the atelier flourished between about 1735 and about 1770, during which time images of Radha and Krishna were the favorite theme. The leading artist of Kishangarh, Nihal Chand, is known from inscriptional and archival evidence to have worked from at least 1757 to 1773. His son, Sitaram, continued to paint in his father's dramatically stylized manner (see Leach, pp. 185-88, no. 71). A less inspired, stereotyped version of Nihal Chand's style was continued into the early nineteenth century by the succeeding artists, of the Kishangarh workshop. The shorter figures, schematic landscape, and awkward treatment of the architecture in this painting suggest a date of execution during this late phase.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

Jilted Heroine in Moonlight

November 26, 2013, 10:52 pm

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This ethereal painting portrays a disappointed heroine who has gone in vain to rendezvous with her lover for a tryst in a forest clearing at night under a full moon. The frustrated paramour waits by an unused bed of leaves and throws her jewelry to the ground in anger over being jilted. Her distress has inflamed her sensitivity. As the poet Kesavadas says in his, Rasikapriya, "the moon-rays burn her body as though with fever, . . . every jewel burns like a firebrand".

The subdued palette used to express the moonlit scene aptly conveys the cool, dreamlike luminosity of such a night. The use of shimmering moonlight was particularly favored in Guler painting of the period and, along with the mannered figure type and landscape features, was especially effective in conveying the underlying romantic mood of the genre.

The personifications of love play, nayikas (female lovers) and nayakas (male lovers), were especially favored in the painting of Kangra and those Pahari ateliers heavily influenced by the Kangra idiom: Guler, Garhwal, Nurpur, and Mandi in its later phases. Paintings depicting the individual types of female lovers, such as the present example, she who has made an appointment and is disappointed (labdhavipra), were frequently produced in sets. These sets and the majority of devotional literature often emphasized the theme and ethos of unrequited love, which was expressed through the many varieties and nuances of lovers in separation. In addition to portrayals of forlorn nayikas, the Guler artists also depicted various other love-sick couples including Sohni and Mahinwal as well as Sassi and Punnu.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

Heroine Braving a Stormy Night to Meet Her Lover

November 27, 2013, 12:06 am

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The heroine of this painting represents the type who braves a fierce night storm in order to keep her rendezvous with her lover (abhisarika). Steadfast in her determination and quest, the heroine is heedless of the danger of the raging storm's lightning and blinding rain. She ignores the cobras slithering by her feet as well as the loss of gold ornaments in her haste. Indeed, her ardor burns like an ascetic's penanc9 In the Rasikapriya, Kesavadas tells of the wives of the goblins of the forest commonly represented in paintings of this type but oddly absent here who ask the heroine, "Whence have you learnt this yoga? Oh Abhisarika, how marvellous this trysting!". The imagery of the impetuous heroine in theft storm was the most popular of all the nayikas to be portrayed in the painting of the Panjab Hills. It is conceptually related to the theme of Sohni braving the river's raging currents to meet her lover Mahinwal.

A mixture of styles is present in this painting. The figure follows Garhwal conventions and, in fact, is based on earlier Garhwal nayikas from about 1770-8o. In contrast, the landscape and sky are more akin to Kulu pictorial traditions in their treatment and palette. This stylistic plurality apparently caused even a leading scholar of Pahari painting, Karl Khandalavala, to attribute it to an "unidentified" workshop. Pigment analysis and a technical examination support a date in the early nineteenth century for the painting, so the possibility of a modern stylistic pastiche can be ruled out.

The most likely solution to the question of the painting's origin, suggested by Roy Craven (personal communication) and followed here, is that it was executed by the well-known poet and painter of Garhwal, Mola Ram, whose literary skills are generally considered to have exceeded his pictorial ones. Indeed, certain details, such as the distinctive earring, exaggerated curve of the bangles, treatment of the storm clouds, and the lackluster draftsmanship of the figure, all accord with Mola Ram's known works.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

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Folio from a Manuscript of the Satsai of Bihari Lal: Krishna Talks to Radha's Maidservant

November 27, 2013, 12:21 am

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This painting depicts Krishna seated in a palace courtyard talking to a handmaid of Radha, who is shown beyond them in a bedchamber. Behind Krishna is a room with a large brass pot heating over a fire. A label in the upper border identifies the scene as "Upapati! Paramour! no. 194," and the text on the reverse of the painting (see Appendix) describes the demure eye contact of the divine lovers and mentions the fire in both the hearth and Krishna's heart.

The painting is thought to illustrate a passage from the Satsai (Seven hundred I verses!), one of the four great jewels of Hindi literature. Intriguingly, however, the inscribed verse does not correspond to the one given in the standard edition of the Satsai, which varies from other known versions of the text in the number and content of the verses (Holland, PP- 4-5).

The standard Salsa; consists 01 713 poetic verses, primarily in celebration of the romance of Radha and Krishna. The remaining verses describe nayakas and nayikas and the romantic sentiments associated with the six seasons of the Indian climate (sec no. 30). It was written by Bihari Lal Chaube (1595-1664), who was born in Govindpur, near Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh, into the mixed caste of Rays, which also produced several other well-known Hindi poets (Randhawa 1966, p. 15). As a child Bihari Lal moved with his family to Orchha and later to Mathura. It was in the latter city that Bihari Lal must have learnt "Braj-Bhasha," the dialect of Hindi in which the Satsai is written and which was current around Mathura, the homeland of Krishna, and was frequently used for the deity's devotional poetry and song lyrics. Bihari Lal enjoyed a profitable tenure at the court of Amber under jai Singh I (r. 1625-67), for whom the Satsai was reportedly composed in 1662 (Grierson, pp. 4-5; and Leach, p. 271). Illustrations of the Satsai were particularly popular in Pahari painting, especially in Kangra during the reign of Sansar Chand (r. 1775-1823), under whose lavish patronage this work was produced.

Stylistically, this painting is a good example of the refined almost overly so expression found in Kangra painting. The soft palette and delicate ambience are the hallmark of the realm's workshops and are particularly adept at conveying the romantic connotations of the popular theme of love.

Writer Name: - Pratapaditya Pal

Folio from a Baramasa Series: Krishna and Radha on a Terrace

November 27, 2013, 12:29 am

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According to the text on its reverse (see Appendix), this painting is an illustration from a Baramasa (The twelve months) series of the month of Chaitra (March-April), which is the first month of the traditional Indian calendar. The verses describe the splendor of the blossoming spring landscape and the sexually exhilarating effect of the season on peacocks and maidens. The painting depicts Krishna sitting on a garden terrace with Radha, who is trying to persuade the blue-skinned lord to stay with her rather than go traveling during the month. In the background of the painting are a landscape) and a river that is rendered with fine, parallel lines reminiscent of Western engraving techniques. There is also a town, temple tank, and walled compound, as well as numerous inhabitants portrayed in an impressionistic manner. A mid-nineteenth-century date for the painting is suggested by the background features as well as the figural and clothing style of Krishna and the distinctive zigzag hemline of Radha's garment (cf. Leach, p. 301, no. 129).

The Baramasa literature of medieval northern India consists of various cycles of oral and written celebrations of the seasonal varieties of the behavior and feelings of lovers over the course of the twelve lunar months of the year. Verses devoted to the twelve months survive from at least as far back as the twelfth century and were particularly popular during the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries in Bengal, Gujarat, and Rajasthan (Vaudeville). Ancient Sanskrit verses glorifying the seasons exist, such as the Ritusamhara (Collection of the seasons) by the great poet and playwright Kalidasa (c. 365-c. 455), but these are specifically concerned with the traditional six Indian seasons of spring, summer, the rains, autumn, winter, and the cool season rather than with the twelve months of the year. The majority of Baramasa verses composed primarily of village women's folk songs or literary poems written in the various regional vernacular languages emphasize the pain of a young wife's separation from her beloved. Descriptions of the different seasons are paired with diverse feelings of longing to evoke the individual mood of each month. Greater emphasis is given to the four months of the rainy season (June through September) than to the remainder of the year, and a select grouping of songs and poems, the Caumasa (Four months), even evolved to celebrate the especially emotive rainy season, which is traditionally connected with the laments of lovers in separation.

Among the best known of the poetic expressions of the Baramasa are those contained in the tenth chapter of the Kavipriya (The poet's breviary), a work on rhetoric written in 1601 by Kesavadas for his patron Indrajit Shah's favorite courtesan, Pravinaraye. The Baramasa verses in the Kavipriya describe the monthly climates and activities of Indian life and relate them to the joys and sorrows of lovers. It was these poems by Kesavadas, rather than the village Baramasa folk songs, that were favored and illustrated by Pahari painters.

Writer Name: - Pratapaditya Pal

Description on Rama Victorious

November 27, 2013, 5:39 am

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Lanka Restored

The battle was over. Ravana's huge body lay sprawled on the ground, covered in blood and surrounded by the gruesome aftermath of war, charred and mutilated remains covering the field as far as the eye could see. At his side knelt Vibhisana, with Rama standing behind him.

'O great hero,' mourned Vibhisana, 'why are you lying here, my brother, rather than on the sumptuous bed that you are used to? You did not take my advice. Now that you have fallen, the city of Lanka and all her people are reduced to ruin.'

'Do not lament,' said Rama. 'He terrorized the universe, even Indra himself. Sooner or later he had to die, and he chose to die the glorious death of a. warrior.'

'He was generous to his friends and ruthless to his enemies,' said Vibhisana, 'and religious according to his own tradition he chanted the Vedic hymns and kept a sacred fire burning in his home.'

'Now you must consider how to perform his funeral rites,' said Rama.

'He was my older brother, but he was also my enemy and lost my respect. He was cruel and deceitful, and violated other mens' wives. I do not know if he deserves a proper cremation,' confessed Vibhisana.

'He was immoral and untruthful, after the nature of a rakshasa,' replied Rama, 'but he was gifted and brave. Cremate him with respect and let enmity end with death.'

Then came Ravana's wives, braving the horrors of the battlefield to be at their husband's side. They threw themselves around him, sobbing and stroking his head.

'If only you had heeded Vibhisana and returned Sita to Rama,' they cried, 'none of this would have happened and we would be spared the curse of becoming widows.'

How could you, who conquered heaven, be overcome by a man wandering in the forest?' spoke Mandodari, Ravana's chief queen. 'The only explanation is that Vishnu, the Great Spirit and eternal sustainer of the worlds, took human form as Rama to finish your life. Sita was the cause of your downfall. The moment you touched her your end was assured. The only reason the gods did not strike you down was because they feared you, but your actions still brought the fruits they deserved. One who does good gains happiness and the sinner reaps misery; no one can escape this law. ,

'You were advised by me, Maricha, Vibhisana, your brother Kumbhakarna, and my father, but you ignored us all.' Mandodari wept on Ravana's breast and her fellow wives tried to console her.

Meanwhile Rama sent Vibhisana into the ruined city of Lanka to make the funeral arrangements and perform the closing rites for Ravana's sacred fire. Soon he returned with the sacred embers, articles of worship and firewood for the pyre carried by rakshasa priests and attendants. They decorated Ravana's linen shroud with flowers and carried his body in procession to the beach, preceded by the sacred fires and followed by weeping rakshasa women.

Vibhisana ignited the pyre while the remaining family members threw rice grains into the flames. Vedic hymns were intoned as the mourners looked on in silence.

When all was finished they returned to the city. His anger exhausted, Rama put away his weapons. A deep joy welled in his heart and his gentle demeanor returned.

Sita's Ordeal by Fire

With Ravana out of the way, Rama's thoughts turned to Sita. He called Hanuman and asked him to take her the news of Ravana's death. He came to the ashok grove and found her as before, unwashed and uncared for with tears in her eyes, seated on the ground beneath the tree guarded by demon women. He stood respectfully at a distance to deliver his message.

'Lord Rama is safe and well, and has killed Ravana. He sends you this message: "After many sleepless months I have bridged the sea and fulfilled my vow to win you back. You now need have no fear as you are in the hands of Vibhisana, the new king of Lanka, who will soon come to see you". Sita was speechless with joy to hear this news and waited for more. But Hanuman remained silent.

'This news is more valuable than all the gold and jewels in the universe,' she laughed, 'and you have delivered it in such sweet words. I cannot repay you enough.'

'If you will permit me, I can deal swiftly with these cruel rakshasa women,' offered Hanuman, eager to be of service. 'They have so mistreated you. Let me kill them now with my bare hands.'

'You must not be angry with them,' reproved Sita. 'They have only done what they were ordered to do. Whatever I have suffered is due to my own sins, not to them. When others mistreat me, I will not mistreat them in return. I will show compassion to all, even if they are unrepentant murderers.' Hanuman checked himself.

'Then have you any message for your husband?' he asked.

'Tell him I long to see him!'

'You shall see him this very day.' With these words Hanuman swiftly flew back to Rama with Sita's message, and urged him to go to her at once to end her misery. Rama sighed deeply in an effort to hold back his tears. After a moment he turned to Vibhisana.

'Go quickly and fetch Sita. Before bringing her here see that she is bathed, dressed in fresh clothes, and adorned as befits a queen.'

Sita waited in the grove, expecting Rama, but instead she saw the ladies of Vibhisana's household who came to bring her to his house, where Vibhisana told her to bathe and dress in preparation for meeting Rama.

'I want to see my husband now, as I am,' she protested, but Vibhisana prevailed on her to do Rama's bidding. The ladies helped her bathe and combed out her tangled hair, dressed her in fine clothes and ornaments and placed her inside a palanquin, covered so that no one could see her. Soon she was brought by a company of rakshasas to Rama's presence.'

During this time Rama remained deep in thought, considering how to welcome Sita. The strict codes of the royal house of Iksvaku demanded that a princess violated by an . enemy must be rejected by her husband. Sita had been Ravana's prisoner for eleven months. Who knows what that immoral demon might have subjected her to? Rama trusted Sita completely, but he was determined that she must be publicly exonerated from any impropriety. He knew what he must do.

What happened next is painful to recount.

Monkeys and rakshasas crowded forward on all sides, anxious for a glimpse of the fabled princess. Vibhisana, hoping to protect Sita from the public, told her to wait in her palanquin, but Rama wanted her brought out in the open.

'These are my people and they want to see her,' he spoke sternly. 'At a time like this there are no secrets, even for royal princesses. Bring her here in front of everyone.'

Vibhisana was uncomfortable with this order, but dared not contradict him. Sita had to suffer the indignity of walking in front of thousands of curious eyes on her way to Rama. She reached him and stood at a respectful distance, her head bowed, and shyly looked into his face. As she gazed into his eyes her discomfort was forgotten for the moment and she glowed with happiness.

'I have won you back according to my vow,' announced Rama. 'The insult against me has been avenged, and its perpetrator repaid for his terrible offence against you. I am once more my own master. All this has been done with the help of Hanuman, Sugriva and Vibhisana, to whom I am indebted.'

Rama spoke without emotion, but his voice sounded strange as it rang out across the crowd. His heart bled for Sita, but he must not show it. She looked upon her lord, with tears falling down her cheeks, and dreaded what he might say next.

'I have redeemed my honour and won you back,' he went on, 'but I did not do this for your sake, fair princess, I did it for the sake of my honour and for the good name of the royal house of Iksvaku. Your honour is not so easy to redeem, since you have lived in the house of a demon who has embraced you in his arms and made you the object of his lust. You are "so desirable, Ravana could not have resisted you for long. I therefore relinquish my attachment to you. You are free to go wherever you please. If you like you can go with Lakshmana, or Bharata, or even Sugriva or the rakshasa Vibhisana. Do as you please.'

A shocked silence fell over the assembly. Sita tried to rake in what she had just heard. She had never in her life received a cross word from her husband. Now he had condemned her in public with these awful words. For her this was worse than death. She bowed her head in shame before this crowd of strangers and cried uncontrollably as Rama waited in stern silence for her response. After a little while she wiped her eyes and stood straight, her face pale and her voice trembling.

'You speak hurtful words, my lord, as if I were a common prostitute, but I am not what you take me for. I am daughter of the earth, who was seized against my will by force. If you were to reject me it would have been better if you had told me through Hanuman when he first came. Then I would have put an end to my life and saved you the trouble of coming here to kill Ravana, endangering the lives of all these innocent people. You forget that when I was a child you took my hand and promised me your protection and that I have served you faithfully ever since. My heart has always remained fixed on you, but now you of all people do not trust me. What am I to do?' Sita's voice broke with emotion. She turned to speak to Lakshmana.

'I have no desire to live when I have been falsely accused and publicly rejected by my husband. Death is my only course. Prepare a pyre for me I will enter the flames.'

Stunned at this request, Lakshmana looked at his brother. Rama nodded his assent. No one dared to contradict him, whose anger seemed capable of destroying the universe. Lakshmana mechanically went about his brother's bidding, and before long a funeral pyre had been built and set alight. The fire began to crackle. Sita circled around Rama in respect and proceeded towards the pyre. Standing before the blazing flames she called in a loud voice:

'May all the gods be my witness. I have never been unfaithful to Rama in thought, word or deed. If the Fire god knows me to be innocent, let him protect me from these flames.' Then she walked into the fire. As she entered the flames the crowd gasped in horror. The flames leapt high and parted over her head as she stepped among them, swallowing her golden form. For a moment she could be seen standing in the midst of the flames like a dazzling flame of gold, then she was lost to sight. Women screamed and fainted. A great cry, strange and terrible to hear, went up from all the monkeys; bears and rakshasas present. Rama sat immobile like one who has lost his life, and tears flooded his eyes.

As the incarnation of Vishnu, Rama had accomplished all the gods had asked of him. But the gods heard Sita's cry for help and were troubled at her ordeal. It was time for them to intervene. The creator Brahma, Shiva the destroyer, Indra the king of heaven, and others all boarded their aerial cars and flew down to earth, where they appeared shining in front of Rama and spoke to him.

'Have you forgotten who you are and who Sita is? You are the source of creation, the beginning, middle and end of all that exists. And yet you treat Sita as an ordinary fallen woman.'

'I am a human being. My name is Rama, son of Dasaratha, and Sita is my human wife. Who do you say I am?'

'You are the supreme Lord Vishnu and Sita is your eternal consort, the goddess Lakshmi,' declared Brahma. 'You are Krishna. You are the Cosmic Person, the source of all, creator of Indra and the gods, and the support of the entire creation. No one knows your origin or who you are, yet you know all living beings. You are worshipped in the form of the Vedic hymns and the mystic syllable om, and night and day are the opening and closing of your eyes.

'At our request you took human form to put an end to Ravana. Now you have accomplished this, and your devotees who praise you will be blessed for evermore.'

Then the Fire god, Agni, rose up out of the flames of the funeral pyre bearing Sita in his arms. She was unharmed by the fire and her clothes and ornaments, even the flowers decorating her hair, were exactly as before. Agni brought her to Rama.

'Here is your wife Sita who is without sin. She has never been unfaithful to you, in thought, word or deed. I command you to treat her gently.'

'This ordeal for Sita was necessary,' Rama explained, 'I had to absolve her from any blame and to preserve the good name of the Iksvaku race. I know she has always been faithful, but I had to prove her innocence. In truth I could not be separated from Sita any more than the sun can part from its own rays. But I thank you and accept, without reservation, your words of advice.' With these words, Sita and Rama were re-united. Then there was a further surprise.

'You have rid the world of the curse' of Ravana,' said Lord Shiva. 'Now you have one thing more to do before you return to heaven. You must bring comfort to your mother and brothers and prosperity to Ayodhya. Greet your deceased father, whom I have brought from heaven to see you.'

Rama and Lakshmana bowed in wonder as Dasaratha descended in their midst, his celestial form shining. Reaching the ground he took them in his arms.

'I am so pleased for you, dear boy,' he said to Rama, 'and at what you have achieved. You have set my mind at rest, which has long been haunted by Kaikeyi's words, and you have redeemed my soul. I now recognize you to be the Supreme Person in the guise of my son. Now you have completed fourteen years in exile, please return to Ayodhya and take up the throne.'

Turning to Lakshmana, he said, 'Your service to Rama and Sita has brought Rama success, the world happiness, and will bring you its own reward. I am deeply pleased with you, my son.' Then he spoke to Sita.

'My daughter, please forgive Rama, who was inspired only by the highest motive. You have shown your purity and courage by entering the flames, and you will be revered henceforth as unequalled among chaste women.' With those words, Dasaratha ascended, to heaven. It now remained for Indra to grant Rama one last wish.

'We are all pleased with your actions, Rama, and would like to grant you a boon. What is your wish?'

Rama was unhesitating. 'May all these monkeys and bears, who have sacrificed their lives for me, be brought back to life and returned to their wives and families.'

'It shall be done,' declared Indra. Then the monkeys and bears rose up, their limbs restored and their injuries healed, as if from a long and peaceful sleep. 'You may return to your homes,' pronounced the assembled gods. 'And Rama — be kind to the noble princess Sita. Make haste to Ayodhya, where your brother Bharata awaits you.' Then they boarded their golden aerial cars and departed for the heavens.

Homecoming

Vibhisana invited Rama to take his bath and put on royal robes and ornaments.

'I cannot bathe until I have been reunited with Bharata,' said Rama. 'For the last fourteen years he has lived as an ascetic for my sake. Now I must hurry to him. If you would please me, help me to get to Ayodhya as soon as possible.'

'That is easily done,' replied Vibhisana. 'The fabulous Puspaka airplane will fly you there by sunset. But first remain here a while and let me entertain you and your army.'

'I would not refuse you, Vibhisana, after you have done so much for me, but I long to see Bharata and my mother.'

Vibhisana summoned the airplane which arrived instantly, gleaming with its golden domes. Rama took the shy Sita in his arms and boarded the plane with Lakshmana.

'Settle peacefully in your kingdoms,' he told Sugriva, Vibhisana and their ministers. 'You have both served me well. I must return.' But they were not ready to part.

'Let us come to Ayodhya and see you crowned,' they protested. 'Only then will we return to our homes.' Rama happily agreed and invited them aboard with all their followers. Miraculously there was enough room aboard the airplane for everyone. When all was ready, the Puspaka ascended effortlessly into the sky amid great excitement. Rama took Sita to a balcony and they looked down at the island of Lanka.

'See, princess, the city of Lanka and outside it the bloody field of battle. Here, at Setubandha, is where we built the bridge across the sea and I received the blessings of Lord Shiva. Now you see Kiskindha, Sugriva's capital where I killed Vali.' As they approached Kiskindha, Sita made a request.

'Let me invite the wives of the monkeys to come with us to Ayodhya.' It was done. The airplane touched down and took aboard thousands before proceeding on its way.

'Now see Mount Rishyamukha, where I spent the rainy season in sorrow and where we first met Hanuman and Sugriva. And here is that enchanting place where we lived in our cottage and where you were carried away by Ravana, and over there is the place where the brave Jatayu died. Here are the ashrams of Agastya, Sutikishna and Sarabanga, and here is where you met the noble Anasuya, wife of Atri. Here is Chitrakoot, the most beautiful of hills, where Bharata found us.'

They stopped overnight at Bharadvaja's ashram and Rama sent Hanuman ahead with messages for Bharata. He was worried that Bharata might resent having to give up the kingdom to his brother. He need not have feared. Hanuman arrived at the village of Nandigram, outside Ayodhya, and found Bharata living as Rama had lived during his exile, dressed in deerskin, with Rama's wooden shoes occupying the central position in his court. When he heard of Rama's return he jumped for joy and hugged Hanuman, showering him with gifts.

The next morning Bharata led everyone out to meet Rama, with Rama's sandals at the head of the procession. A great cry went up when the people saw Lord Rama seated in the Puspaka airplane as it slowly descended. Rama came forward and took Bharata in his arms. Bharata hugged Lakshmana and greeted Sita, then he embraced one by one all the leading monkeys. Rama tearfully clasped the feet of his mother and offered his respects to the sage Vasistha. Bharata then placed his shoes back on his feet.

'I return to you your kingdom which I have held in trust for you,' said Bharata with emotion. 'By your grace all has flourished and my life is now fulfilled.' Again Rama hugged Bharata, while many of the monkeys, and even Vibhisana, shed a tear.

Rama was placed in the hands of barbers who shaved his beard and untangled his matted locks. Then he and Sita were bathed and dressed in royal finery. Sumantra brought up Rama's royal chariot and in grand procession entered Ayodhya, with Bharata at the reins and his brothers fanning him. Sugriva and the monkeys were welcomed into the heart of Ayodhya where Rama gave them the freedom of his royal palace and gardens.

For Rama's coronation, monkeys were sent by Sugriva to collect water from the four seas, east, south, west and north, and from five hundred rivers. Vasistha conducted the ceremony, bathing Rama with the sacred waters and installing Sita and Rama on the throne. Rama distributed gifts to all his people."

Sita looked kindly on Hanuman, unclasping her pearl necklace. She hesitated, looking shyly at her husband. Rama understood. 'Give it to the one who has pleased you best,' he said, and she placed it around Hanuman's neck.

During Rama's rule there was no hunger, crime or disease. People lived long, the earth was abundant, society prospered and all were dedicated to truth. For his people, Rama was everything and he ruled them for eleven thousand years.

Whoever daily hears this Ramayana, composed in ancient times by Valmiki, is freed from all sins. Those who hear without anger the tale of Rama's victory will overcome all difficulties and attain long life, and those away from home will be re-united with their loved ones. Rama is none other than the original Lord Vishnu, source of all the worlds, and Lakshmana is his eternal support.

Epilogue

For a month after Rama's coronation, festivities and merry-making continued. When it was time for them to go, the monkeys cried and stammered; it was a sad parting. Last of all came Hanuman.

'My Lord, please grant my request,' submitted Hanuman. 'Let me always be devoted to you and no one else, and let me live as long as your story is remembered on earth.'

Rama hugged Hanuman and granted his wish, saying, 'Your fame and your life will last as long as My story is repeated, which will be until the end of the world.'

After Rama's guests had gone he spent many happy days roaming with Sita in the royal pleasure groves. In this way nearly two years passed. One day Sita appeared more beautiful than usual, and Rama knew that she was pregnant.

'My dearest Sita, you are going to have a child. Is there anything you wish?'

'I would dearly like to visit the ashrams across the Ganges, and stay one more night with those sages eating only roots and fruits.'

'Please rest tonight and tomorrow I will arrange it,' promised Rama.

That evening he sat as usual with his friends and chanced to ask them for the gossip among the people of Ayodhya concerning their king and queen.

'They praise you and your victory over Ravana,' came the reply.

'Do they say nothing against me?' Rama inquired. 'You may speak without fear.'

One of them admitted that men all over his kingdom spoke ill of his relationship with Sita. They said that since Rama had accepted Sita back after she had been touched by Ravana, they would now have to tolerate unfaithfulness from their own wives, because whatever the king does his subjects will follow. When he heard this Rama was astonished and turned to his other friends.  

Is this so?' he asked in dismay.

One by one they nodded, 'It is true, my lord.' Dumbfounded and full of grief, Rama dismissed them and sat deep in thought. After a while he sent for his three brothers. They arrived to find him crying. They bowed and waited for him to speak.

'In times of trouble you three are my life,' he began. 'Now I need your help and support more than ever.' He paused while they waited anxiously.

I have just been informed that my Sita is not approved by the people they think her unchaste. This is despite the trial I subjected her to in Lanka, where the gods themselves testified to her purity. I know her to be pure, yet dishonor, for a king, is worse than any other fault. I would rather die than fail to uphold honour.

'Therefore my mind is made up. Sita has told me she wants to visit the ashrams on the other side of the Ganges. Lakshmana, tomorrow you must take her there and leave her in the care of the sage Valmiki. Please don't try to dissuade me from this.' With a heavy heart, Rama took leave of his brothers and spent the night in sorrow.

In the morning Lakshmana set off with Sita in his chariot, driven by Sumantra, on the two-day journey to the Ganges. On the way Sita noticed strange symptoms.

'How is it, Lakshmana, that my right eye throbs and my limbs shiver? My heart beats faster as though I were distressed. Is all well?'

'All is well, my lady,' Lakshmana said. But when they reached the Ganges he sat down by the river and sobbed.

'Why are you crying, Lakshmana?' asked Sita. `Do you miss Rama? Come, let us cross the Ganges now, and after one night we will return to see him.'

Lakshmana checked his tears and together they boarded a boat. Once they reached the other side and got out of the boat Lakshmana broke down.

'My heart is pierced by an arrow. I have been entrusted to carry out an awful deed for which I will be hated for ever. I would rather die!'

Sita was alarmed. 'What is it, Lakshmana? It seems you are not well, and neither was Rama when I said goodbye to him. Do tell me what is wrong.'

'Rama has heard unpleasant rumours,' Lakshmana stammered. 'It seems the people think you unchaste. In great pain he has ordered me to leave you here at Valmiki's ashram, although he knows you to be blameless. Valmiki was a close friend of our father and will care for you. Please stay here peacefully and hold Rama always in your heart.

Sita fell unconscious on the ground.

'This body of mine was created only for sorrow,' she wept. 'What sin have I com-mitted that I should be made to suffer like this? If! were not bearing Rama's child I would drown myself in the Ganges.

'Do as the king has ordered, Lakshmana,' she went on. 'Leave me here. Please wish my mother’s well, and give this message to Rama: "You know I am pure, and will always remain devoted to you. To save you from dishonor I make this sacrifice. Please treat all your citizens as you would your brothers, and bear yourself with honour, then these false rumours will be disproved. You, my husband, are dearer to me than my life." Now look at me one last time, Lakshmana, and depart.'

'I will not look at your beauty now, lady, since all my life I have looked only on your feet,' said Lakshmana through his tears. He bowed his head at her feet and boarded the boat. Without looking back he urged the boatman on.

Sita remained crying by the riverside. Her cries were heard by the young ascetics of Valmiki's ashram and they brought the news to him. He gently brought her into his ashram, reassuring her that she need have no fear. Lakshmana, from across the river, saw her taken in and returned to Ayodhya.

Valmiki knew Sita was blameless and that she carried Rama's child. He took her to the women ascetics who lived nearby as his disciples, and instructed them to care for her as their own child. There Sita lived in peace and bore twin sons named Kusa and Lava. In time, Valmiki taught them his poem describing their father's deeds, Ramayana.

With help from Lakshmana, Rama learned to live with his sorrow after the loss of Sita, and found consolation in caring for his people. But he kept her always in his heart. Twelve years passed and Ayodhya prospered. To ensure the continued well-being of the kingdom, Rama decided to perform the exalted asvamedha ceremony, as had his father before his birth. When all was ready, the sage Valmiki arrived with Kusa and Lava and told them to recite Ramayana as he had taught them.

Kusa and Lava were asked to sing their tale for the king, and all present noticed their striking resemblance to Rama. After several days of recital the story revealed them to be the sons of Sita. When Rama understood this his heart troubled him. He sent word to Valmiki inviting him to bring Sita to Ayodhya, if she so agreed, to declare her chastity and exonerate her name.

Valmiki gave his approval and brought Sita to a great gathering in the presence of Rama. He stood in front of the people and spoke.

'Your majesty, Sita has lived under my care since you abandoned her. Now she has come to proclaim her honour. I, Valmiki, who never spoke a lie, declare these twin sons of hers to be your sons and Sita to be without sin.'

'Honorable sage,' said Rama, 'I have always known that Sita is pure and I acknowledge these two boys as my sons. The gods themselves vouched for Sita's purity. Nonetheless, the people did not trust her, therefore I sent her away, although I knew her to be sinless. I beg her forgiveness.'

Sita advanced into the middle of the assembly. In full view of all, with her eyes cast downwards, she made a vow.

'If I have always been faithful to Rama, in mind, word and deed, may Mother Earth embrace me. If I know only Rama as my worshipful lord, let her take me now.'

At that moment the Earth goddess rose from the earth on a beautiful throne. She took Sita in her arms and sat her on the throne, then withdrew with her into the earth. Petals fell from the sky and cries of adoration echoed from the gods.

Rama sank back in tears. He raged at the earth to return Sita, threatening to break down her mountains and over flood her surface. It was necessary for Brahma to appear before Rama and pacify him by reminding him that, as Vishnu, he would be reunited with Sita in heaven.

Rama mastered his grief. He returned to ruling his 4 kingdom and caring for his people. In time, he installed his sons and his brother's sons as rulers. Eleven thousand years passed by.

One day a strange figure appeared at his door. It was Death personified, sent with a message from Brahma. The message said, 'You are the eternal Vishnu who sleeps on the causal ocean. In ancient times I, the creator, was born from you. In order to kill Ravana, you entered the world of humans and fixed your stay for eleven thousand years. That time is now complete. Please return to protect the gods.'

Rama set off for the banks of the Sarayu river, taking with him his brothers and all who were devoted to him. Ayodhya was without a living soul. Only Hanuman, Vibhisana and Jambavan remained on earth. Entering the waters of the Sarayu with his devoted followers, Rama left this world and returned to his eternal realm, where his devotees eternally serve the Lord of their hearts, forever reunited with his beloved Sita.

Writer Name: Ranchor Prime

Punyaki Ragini, Harsha Ragaputra and Madhu Ragaputra

December 2, 2013, 10:52 pm

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Punyaki Ragini

On the reverse of this painting are inscribed in the Takri and Devanagari scripts, respectively, Punyaki Ragini and Purvi Ragini. Analysis of the painting's iconography resolves the disparity and corroborates the former identification. Both inscriptions label it correctly as the wife of Bhairava Raga, number 4. Punyaki Ragini is a wife of Bhairava Raga according to the Kshemakarna system, in which the melody is compared to the .sound of rushing water. The term punya means the earning of religious merit through charity. Consequently, as Indian religious ceremonies often involve the pouring of consecrated water over a holy man's hands, representations of Punyaki Ragini frequently portray the ablution of a mendicant's hands by the lady of a house or palace.

This illustration of Punyaki Ragini differs in that the lady is shown giving alms in the form of coins to a Saiva mendicant rather than pouring water over his hands. Nevertheless, the underlying rationale is the same, as it is still a meritorious act that is being stressed in the painting. Indeed, other iconographic variations are known, including the offering to the mendicant of a piece of jewelry or even a sheaf of barley.

Ragamalas were a particularly popular subject in Bilaspur painting between 1650 and 1780, a period coinciding with the political and cultural zenith of the court. At least twenty-one Ragamala sets were produced by the workshops of Bilaspur. Out of these sets, two other representations of Punyaki Ragini are known to have survived: one from about 1690-95 and the other from about 1750. The three examples differ somewhat in composition and expression, with the example of about 1690-95 and the present painting being the closest in style. A number of Bilaspur stylistic features are common to these two paintings, including a long spiraling lock of hair in place of a sideburn for the mendicants, somewhat short figures, substantial depictions of brickwork, and a distinctive, sultry palette.

Harsha Ragaputra

In the upper border are rather indistinct Takri and Devanagari inscriptions that both identify the painting as Harsha Ragaputra, a son of Bhairava Raga. Kshemakarna's classification likens the melody to the sound of running water and pictures the hero as an impetuous, fair-skinned adolescent wearing a blue garment and a pearl necklace. The name Harsha means rapture, especially that of a sexual nature. Pahari paintings of the melody apparently take their inspiration from the description of the personified hero and the lustful connotations of the name. They typically portray the young hero seated or standing with a woman, usually in a bedchamber. Often the couple are shown enjoying betel nut.

This representation of Harsha Ragaputra generally accords with the above iconographic description. A hero and heroine are seated in a pavilion bedchamber. He wears a long strand of pearls and rubies over his shoulder and a blue-striped purple garment, thus basically agreeing with his prescribed adornment and garb. In place of sharing betel-nut delicacies, however, the couple is shown gesticulating dramatically, and each figure inexplicably holds a handkerchief. Another unusual feature of this painting and the series to which it belongs, common to "only a few early Pahari ragamalas", is that within the set the colors of the borders and the backgrounds are coordinated for each raga's family. Hence, for this series of the Bhairava family the borders are yellow and within them the backgrounds are flaming orange.

This painting is from an important Basohli series known generally as the Tandan Ragamala after the name of the author who first published it. The set once belonged to the family of the former court astrologer of Basohli. With sixty-five extant folios, it is the most extensive of the early Pahari Ragamalas known to have survived. The paintings were executed during the reign of Dhiraj Pal, who was a scholar and patron of the arts. It has been dated to about 1700 by Tandan and to about 1707-15 by Khandalavala, either of which would place it in the middle of the four other known Basohli Ragamalas ranging in date from about 1675 to about 1720. Stylistically, the present painting exhibits a number of characteristic Basohli motifs and features. The most significant of these are the brilliant palette, the distinctive elongated facial types with sloped foreheads, the single tall cypress tree, the presence of small sections of iridescent beetle thorax casing used to imitate emeralds, and the distinctive bejeweled golden pendant worn by the hero, which is found only in Basohli portraits.

Madhu Ragaputra

The Takri inscription in the border above this painting states it to be Madhu Ragaputra, a son of Bhairava Raga. According to Kshemakarna, whose verse 20 describes the personification of the melody, the protagonist is a handsome and knowledgeable man dressed in red garments. In contrast, however, most Pahari representations of the melody, including the present example, show a hero fondling his beloved's breasts. Alternatively, the couple are depicted as drinking, with or without-a female attendant.

This Chamba painting of about 1715 exhibits strong stylistic influence from contemporary Basohli works. Figural and facial types are similar, and coloration schemes of deep intense hues and monochromatic backgrounds are analogous. In contrast, in contemporary Chamba painting figures are generally somewhat less stylized, drapery and fauna conventions differ, the palette is generally more subdued, and small sections of beetle thorax casing arc never used for decoration as they are in the Basohli tradition. The Ragamala set of which this painting was once a part originally belonged to the Chamba royal family. It is now in the Bhuri Singh Museum of Chamba except for some twelve dispersed pages. At least three other Ragamala sets, all later than that of the present work, were also painted by the Chamba ateliers.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal

Two Folios from a Ragamala Series

December 3, 2013, 12:58 am

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The presence of two paintings from the same series in the Green collection provides an opportunity for viewers to study the stylistic and compositional relationships between illustrations of different ragas/raginis within a given Ragamala set. The present comparison is especially instructive, for the careful observer will discern that the two paintings, although clearly from the same series, were in fact painted by two different artists. The major comparable features of the two include the visually dominant expanses of white architecture and the division of the paintings into four registers, composed of a row of niches with flowering plants and parrots along the bottom, the figures and palatial setting in the middle, the lines of trees in the penultimate register, and the lengthy poetic passages, written in the same hand, in the yellow panel at the top.

Closer scrutiny of the two paintings, however, reveals innumerable minute differences in detail. The treatment of the pink lotus petals covering the surface of the architectural domes differs considerably between the two: the dome of painting A has petals radiating outward in a lively arrangement, but those of painting a lie in stiff horizontal rows. The detailing in ink of the architecture, intended to represent carved marble forms, is much finer and more complex in painting A than in B. The vegetal and floral forms are related but differ in botanical structure and array, with those of painting A generally more boldly portrayed. Figures and animals are more supple and naturalistic in painting A. Given these variances in detail and execution, painting A seems more accomplished than B and, by extension, so was its painter. For other paintings from this series, see Pal 1978, pp. 114-15, no. 34 (Panchama Ragini); Pal 1981, p. 58, no. 47 (Kanhra Ragini); and Sotheby's 1996, lot 186 (Malkos Raga). An additional unpublished illustration of Mcgha-Mallar Raga from this series is in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

A.)   This painting is identified and described by the text in its upper panel as representing Kedar Ragini, who is described as a love-torn, emaciated woman wearing earrings, smeared with ashes as an ascetic, and playing a vina. The ragini, a wife of Hindola Raga, is an early night melody characterized by tenderness and believed to possess magical healing properties. In the Rajasthani tradition Kedar Ragini is portrayed as a night scene with an ascetic either playing or holding a vina or listening to a musician playing the instrument. Surprisingly, the ascetic in this illustration is shown holding a tambura rather "than a vina, while both instruments are being played by two female musicians. In the sky above the trees an antelope pulls a celestial chariot bearing a crescent moon, a symbol of Siva, the arch-ascetic of Indian culture.

B.)  Here the text in the upper panel identities the heroine as Desakhya Ragini, a wife of Sri Raga, and describes her as a lovely woman wearing a sari in Marathi fashion and performing an acrobatic movement on the upright pillar. Desakhya Ragini is a late morning melody stressing the heroic sentiment. Depictions of the ragini in the Rajasthani tradition feature a group of acrobats performing feats of strength and coordination. Occasionally, as shown here, women athletes are shown in place of their male counterparts in order to reconcile the traditionally male quality of physical prowess with the feminine gender of the melody.

Writer Name:- Pratapaditya Pal